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QH48 


1971 


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NATURE    STUDY 


A   PUPIL'S   TEXT-BOOK 


BY 


FRANK  OVERTON,  A.M.,  M.D. 

ASSISTED   BY 

MARY   E.    HILL 

INSTRUCTOR  IN   SCIENCE  AND   NATURE   STUDY   IN   THE  GOODYEAR- 
BURLINGAME   SCHOOL,   SYRACUSE,   N.Y. 


NEW  YORK  •:•  CINCINNATI  •:•  CHICAGO 

AMERICAN    BOOK    COMPANY 


Copyright,  1905,  by 
FRANK  OVERTON. 

Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London. 


OVERTON  S   nature   STUDY. 

W.  p.     9 


INTRODUCTION 


Time  was  in  the  history  of  our  schools  when  a  pupil  was 
given  a  certain  subject  concerning  which  he  knew  nothing  and 
cared  less,  and  was  expected  to  evolve  from  it  a  composition 
that  should  contain  both  good  ideas  and  good  English.  No 
one  seemed  to  realize  that  this  was  a  double  task  that,  like 
Janus,  faced  in  opposite  directions.  Either  way  by  itself  was 
sufficiently  difficult ;  but  for  a  pupil  to  follow  both  simultane- 
ously was  quite  impossible.  Even  to-day  an  inexperienced 
teacher  too  often  regards  English  as  the  material  for  the  manu- 
facture of  ideas  rather  than  as  a  medium  for  expressing  them. 
Thus  it  often  happens  that,  in  our  elementary  schools,  the  lan- 
guage lessons  are  a  weary  work  and  a  strain  on  both  teacher 
and  pupil. 

The  seemingly  natural  plan  of  letting  the  child  express  his 
own  thoughts  in  language  either  spoken  or  written  marks  a 
new  era  in  the  teaching  of  English.  When  we  go  a  step 
farther  and  confine  the  language  work  to  those  subjects  which 
must  interest  the  child,  we  shall  have  ideal  conditions. 

The  correlation  of  nature  study  with  language  lessons  is 
almost  inevitable.  The  child  sees  certain  living  creatures  and 
is  interested  in  their  life  and  habits  and  almost  involuntarily 
he  tells  what  he  sees ;  if  the  teacher  is  in  sympathy  with  him, 
he  likes  quite  as  well  to  write  about  his  observations  as  to  tell 
about  them.  And  since  he  is  trying  to  express  only  what  he 
knows  and  has  experienced,  his  English  is  simple  and  straight- 
forward ;  and,  even  when  it  is  faulty,  it  may  be  corrected  better 
by  good  example  than  by  that  ogre  of  school  work  in  English, 
the  blue  pencil. 


Q  \![f^  1971 


*j 


4  INTRODUCTION 

Dr.  Overton's  experiments  in  interesting  the  children  of 
his  native  town  in  nature  have  proved  to  be  of  wide  interest. 
No  phase  of  his  work  has  been  more  important  pedagogically 
than  his  success  in  getting  his  pupils  to  make  notes  in  the  field. 
Each  one  of  these  notebooks  which  I  have  examined  is  a  mine 
of  wealth  to  the  teacher  of  English,  if  she  knows  how  to  work 
it.  In  them  are  recorded  observations  about  bird  and  beast, 
flower  and  insect,  showing  where  the  child's  interest  in  the 
outdoor  world  was  aroused.  Such  records,  taken  as  start- 
ing points  for  further  personal  observations  and  for  reading, 
will  be  a  source  of  most  interesting  information  about  familiar 
objects,  and  must  surely  result  in  language  lessons  which  will 
delight  both  pupil  and  teacher.  The  whole  plan  of  Dr.  Over- 
ton's book  seems  to  me  simple  and  excellent,  and  it  can  not 
fail  to  be  of  great  use  to  the  grade  teacher. 


ANNA  BOTSFORD  COMSTOCK. 


Bureau  of  Nature  Study, 
Cornell  University. 


HOW  TO  USE   THIS  BOOK 


Design  of  This  Book.  —  These  lessons  are  designed  to  fur- 
nish a  year's  work  in  nature  study  for  pupils  from  eight  to 
eleven  years  of  age.  They  are  upon  subjects  that  are  con- 
nected with  everyday  life,  and  the  material  for  their  study 
can  easily  be  secured  even  in  the  larger  cities.  The  subjects 
are  arranged  in  the  order  of  the  seasons,  beginning  with  early 
fall ;  but  suggestions  are  given  for  continuing  the  study  of 
many  of  the  specimens  throughout  the  whole  period  of  their 
life  histories.  The  lessons  throw  light  on  unfamiliar  sides  of 
familiar  things,  and  afford  a  basis  for  future  scientific  studies, 
especially  along  biological  lines.  They  are  correlated  with 
drawing  and  language  in  such  a  way  that  sketching  and  com- 
position writing  may  lead  to  closer  observation  of  the  speci- 
mens, and  that  nature  study  may  afford  interesting  and 
inspiring  subjects  for  expression  with  pencil  and  pen.  Most 
of  the  cuts  are  reproductions  of  photographs  by  the  author. 

Method  of  Use.  —  Throughout  this  book  laboratory  methods 
are  outlined.  Each  lesson  is  divided  into  two  parts,  first,  ob- 
serving, sketching,  and  describing  a  specimen  that  is  examined 
in  the  schoolroom ;  and,  second,  supplementary  work  which  is 
intended  to  explain  the  meaning  of  what  is  observed,  and  to 
continue  the  observations  by  making  use  of  additional  speci- 
mens which  the  pupils  find  at  home,  or  on  walks  and  pleasure 
trips. 

The  first  part  of  each  lesson  is  printed  in  large  type,  and  is 
designed  to  be  given  during  a  single  period;  but  if  time  is 
limited,  the  drawing  and  composition  work  may  be  given  in 
the  succeeding  lesson.      A  pupil  first  examines  a  specimen, 


irr»*cd'* 


6  HOW  TO   USE   THIS  BOOK 

following  the  questions  under  the  heading  "  Observation,"  and 
then  draws  the  specimen  and  writes  about  it.  A  short  oral 
recitation  on  the  observation  questions  should  also  be  con- 
ducted. If  the  oral  work  is  done  at  the  beginning  of  a  period, 
the  pupils  will  have  a  guide  for  their  writing;  but  if  the 
writing  is  done  first,  the  pupils  can  exercise  the  more  origi- 
nality and  independence  in  their  observations  and  expression. 
Whether  the  oral  or  the  Avritten  work  should  be  given  first 
will  depend  on  the  class. 

The  supplementary  work  is  printed  in  smaller  type,  and  is 
designed  to  be  given  either  as  oral  or  as  written  work  when  the 
pupils  have  made  their  observations.  In  some  of  the  subjects 
parts  of  this  work  may  not  be  given  until  months  after  the  first 
parts  of  the  lessons  have  been  given. 

Method  of  the  Composition  Writing.  —  In  composition  writing 
there  are  two  distinct  processes  :  — 

1.  Expressing  thought  clearly. 

2.  Adjusting  expression  to  accepted  standards. 

In  compositions  connected  with  nature  study  lessons  em- 
phasis should  be  placed  on  clearness  of  expression.  Details 
of  grammar,  spelling,  capitalization,  punctuation,  and  penman- 
ship belong  to  the  period  devoted  to  language  proper,  and,  in  a 
nature  study  lesson,  should  not  be  brought  out  so  prominently 
that  the  pupils  fear  to  write.  AVhile  an  advanced  student 
should  be  able  to  write  correctly  without  conscious  effort,  a 
child  can  not  be  perfect  in  the  mechanical  details  of  his  com- 
position without  devoting  more  time  and  effort  to  them  than 
to  the  subject-matter  itself.  A  practical  method  for  securing 
both  clearness  and  correctness  is  to  have  the  pupils  write  their 
nature  study  compositions  during  a  sirtgle  unbroken  period, 
paying  special  attention  to  directness  and  clearness.  Then  let 
the  teacher  use  these  compositions  as  a  basis  for  work  during 
the  language  period. 


HOW   TO   USE   THIS   BOOK  7 

Paragraphing.  —  One  of  the  best  means  of  securing  clearness 
of  expression  is  to  have  the  pupils  write  in  paragraphs,  placing 
the  title  of  each  paragraph  at  its  beginning.  By  this  method 
the  whole  essay  is  divided  into  smaller  compositions  which 
are  of  such  a  size  that  a  pupil  can  readily  judge  of  their  clear- 
ness and  unity. 

Personal  Help. — Each  composition  should  have  in  it  some- 
thing that  originates  with  the  writer,  and  that  is  not  developed 
from  the  general  class  exercises.  In  both  composition  and 
nature  study  the  best  and  most  original  work  will  be  done 
when  each  pupil  works  individually.  In  this  book  the  work 
is  designed  to  be  done  by  the  pupils  without  direct  assistance 
from  the  teacher ;  but  bright  as  well  as  dtdl  scholars  sometimes 
have  difficulty  in  beginning  to  write,  and  therefore,  during  each 
lesson,  the  teacher  should  go  among  the  pupils  and  give  a  few 
words  of  personal  help  to  those  who  are  in  immediate  need  of  it. 

Each  pupil  should  also  regularly  receive  criticisms  of  his 
work,  and  definite  suggestions  for  its  improvement.  It  will 
be  well  to  make  only  one  criticism  and  to  suggest  only  one 
improvement  at  a  time,  so  as  to  avoid  confusing  and  discourag- 
ing the  pupil. 

Notebooks.  —  Early  in  the  course  of  the  lessons  a  dispute  is 
likely  to  arise  concerning  the  exact  appearance  of  a  specimen 
that  some  pupil  has  seen.  Then  the  finder  should  be  encour- 
aged to  look  again,  and  while  he  is  looking  to  write  his  observa- 
tion as  evidence  of  the  reliability  of  his  statements.  If  this 
exercise  is  done  in  a  natural  and  informal  way,  other  pupils  will 
be  eager  to  record  their  home  observations,  and  to  report  them 
to  the  class.  When  interest  has  been  aroused,  have  all  the 
pupils  keep  notebooks  in  which  to  make  a  daily  record  of 
observations  upon  any  object,  whether  it  is  mentioned  in  the 
book  or  not.  Suggestions  from  the  notebooks  may  often  be 
developed  into  lessons  for  the  whole  class. 

The  Specimens. —  In  most  of  the  lessons  there  should  be 
enough  specimens  so  that  each  pupil  may  have  one,  and  some 


8  HOW  TO   USE   THIS  BOOK 

be  left  over  to  replace  those  that  are  spoiled  during  the  work. 
In  a  few  of  the  lessons  one  or  two  specimens  placed  where  the 
pupils  can  examine  them  will  be  sufficient.  Have  each  pupil 
bring  his  own  specimen  if  possible ;  otherwise  have  a  few 
volunteers  bring  enough  for  the  whole   room. 

If  it  is  planned  to  preserve  specimens,  those  that  can  not  be 
dried  may  be  kept  in  the  following  mixture  :  — 

Formalin,  one  ounce. 
Water,  one  quart. 

This  is  a  safe,  reliable,  and  inexpensive  mixture,  and  preserves 
both  vegetable  and  animal  tissues  in  nearly  their  natural 
colors.  Insects  may  be  painlessly  killed  by  putting  them  in 
a  tightly  closed  fruit  jar  containing  a  few  drops  of  chloro- 
form. 

Kindness  to  Animals. — When  live  insects  or  animals  are 
kept  in  the  schoolroom  the  teacher  should  exercise  the  greatest 
care  for  their  comfort,  and  should  set  them  free  as  soon  as 
possible,  as  an  example  of  kindness  to  animals.  While  some 
may  die  because  they  have  reached  maturity,  there  can  be  no 
excuse  for  allowing  any  to  die  from  neglect. 

Devices.  —  Before  giving  a  lesson  the  teacher  should  do  the 
drawing  and  composition  work  in  order  to  know  what  work  to 
expect  from  the  pupils,  and  what  difficulties  they  will  be  likely 
to  encounter. 

It  is  often  possible  to  appeal  to  an  indifferent  pupil  by  ask- 
ing him  to  get  a  specimen  that  is  difficult  to  obtain.  The  boy 
at  the  foot  of  the  class  often  leads  it  in  knowledge  of  the  woods 
and  fields  and  brooks. 

A  fruitful  source  of  specimens  is  the  walk  to  and  from 
school.  Go  home  with  the  pupils  and  show  them  the  wealth 
of  material  at  their  doors.  Occasionally  take  the  pupils  out 
for  an  informal  walk  or  ride  to  search  for  specimens,  and  to 
observe  things  growing  in  their  natural  homes. 

Have  growing  specimens  of  plants  and  animals  in  the  school- 


HOW   TO   USE   THIS  BOOK  9 

room,  and  make  it  a  reward  of  merit  for  a  pupil  to  be  allowed 
to  watch  them  during  school  hours. 

Sometime  during  the  year  have  a  public  exhibition  of  speci- 
mens and  class  work  so  as  to  gain  the  cooperation  of  the  chil- 
dren's parents  and  older  brothers  and  sisters.  At  the  end  of 
the  year  leave  suggestions  for  study  and  observation  which  the 
pupils  can  follow  up  during  the  summer  vacation. 

Write  to  the  Bureau  of  Nature  Study,  Cornell  University, 
Ithaca,  N.Y.,  for  information  about  forming  a  nature  study 
club  among  the  pupils. 

Knowledge  required  in  Nature  Study.  —  The  object  of  nature 
study  is  not  so  much  to  get  present  knowledge  as  to  develop 
the  power  and  love  of  observation  by  which  knowledge  may 
be  gained  in  after  life.  The  teacher  should  never  substitute 
lecturing  for  observation  and  investigation.  Any  one  can 
observe  specimens  without  possessing  previous  knowledge  of 
what  is  seen.  The  greatest  success  is  attained  by  those  teachers 
who,  whether  or  not  they  have  had  previous  knowledge  of  the 
subject,  are  learners  with  their  pupils.  In  the  study  of  the 
great  "  Book  of  Nature,"  the  best  that  a  teacher  or  jjupil  can 
do  is  to  read  a  few  of  its  pages,  and  to  get  from  them  the 
inspiration  to  continue  the  reading. 


CONTENTS 


I. 

House  Fly    . 

• 

• 

II. 

Mosquito 

III. 

Butterflies  and  Moths 

IV. 

Mushrooms    . 

V. 

Dandelion     . 

VI. 

Spider  Webs 

VII. 

Golden-rod  . 

VIII. 

Golden-rod  Gall 

IX. 

Burdock 

X. 

Xest  of  a  Paper  Wasp 

XL 

Nest  of  a  Mud  Wasp 

XII. 

Bird's  Nest  . 

XIII. 

Tree  Trunk 

XIV. 

Cocoons 

XV. 

Ice  .... 

XVI. 

Snowflake    . 

•     - 

XVII. 

Frost 

XVIII. 

Pine  Tree     . 

XIX. 

Pine  Leaves 

XX. 

Pine  Cone     . 

XXI. 

Apple  Branch 

XXII. 

Apple  Fruit  Spui 

R 

PAGE 

13 

17 

23 

31 

35 

40 

44 

48 

50 

53 

56 

60 

64 

69 

73 

78 

83 

85 

88 

91 

94 

98 


11 


12 

CONTENTS 

XXIIT. 

Earthworm 

• 

XXIV. 

Onion 

► 

XXV. 

Maplp:  Seed 

» 

XXVI. 

Sprouting  Bean 

i 

XXVII. 

Maple  Bud 

t 

XXVIII. 

Tadpole 

XXIX. 

Water  Strider 

4 

XXX. 

Duckweed  . 

« 

XXXI. 

Apple  Blossom 

i 

XXXII. 

Oak  Apple 

< 

XXXIII. 

Clothes  ^Ioth  . 

■ 

Index    . 

« 

PAGE 

102 
105 
108 
112 
115 
119 
123 
126 
129 
133 
136 

139 


NATURE  STUDY 


I.   HOUSE   FLY 


Material.  —  House  flies  in  large-mouthed  bottles 


o^ 


Observation.  — What  is  the  shape  of  a  fly's  head? 
What  is  the  shape  of  its  neck  ?  What  is  the  color  of 
its  eyes  ?  How  much  of  the  head  do  the  eyes  seem 
to  cover  ? 

Notice  the  two  divisions  of  a  fly's  body.  The  front 
part  is  called  the  thorax,  and  the  hind  part  the  abdo- 
men. What  is  the  color  of  the  thorax  ?  What  is  the 
color  of  the  abdomen  ?  To  which  division  are  the 
wings  fastened  ?     To  which  are  the  legs  fastened  ? 

How  many  wings  has  a  fly  ?  What  is  their  color  ? 
How  are  they  marked  ? 

How  many  legs  has  a  fly  ? 

Drawing.  —  Draw  the  picture  of  a  house  fly  as 
you  see  it  when  you  look  down  upon  its  back.  Make 
your  picture  two  or  three  times  as  large  as  the  real 
fly,  so  that  you  may  have  room  to  draw  each  part 
clearly.  First,  draw  it  with  very  light  lines,  so  that 
you  can  easily  correct  your  work.  When  you  have 
drawn  it  right^  go  over  the  lines  and  make  them 
heavier. 

13 


14 


HOUSE  FLY 


Composition.  —  Write  a  description  of  what  you 
have  observed  about  a  house  fly.  In  writing  this 
description  follow  this  outline  of  topics,  making  each 
topic  a  separate  paragraph.  AYrite  all  you  wish  to 
say  about  each  topic  in  its  own  paragraph. 

The  House  Fly  :  — 

Head  Wings 

Body  Legs 


SUPPLEMENTARY  WORK 

A  Fly's  Eating.  —  Watch  a  house  fly  as  it  eats.    What  is  the 
shape    of  the  lower  end   of  the   tube   that  it  touches  to  its 

food  ?  Where  is  the 
tube  carried  when 
the  fly  is  not  eat- 
ing? The  mouth 
parts  of  a  house  fly 
are  not  made  for  bit- 
ing or  to  be  thrust 
into  the  skin,  but 
for  sucking  up  bits 
from  the  outside 
parts  of  soft  food. 
A  Fly's  Cleanli- 
ness. —  AVatch  a 
house  fly  and  notice 
how  it  often  passes 

its  fore  legs  over  its 

House  Fly  (Magnified)  i        i  i.  t, 

*  head  as  a  cat  washes 

her  face.     Notice  also  that  it  rubs  its  wings  with  its  hind  legs, 

and  that  it  rubs  its  legs  together  as  if  it  were  washing  them. 

Dust  a  fly  with  a  little  flour  and  see  it  clean  itself.     If  you 


HOUSE  FLY  15 

can  get  a  magnifying  glass,  look  at  a  fly's  body  and  legs,  and 
notice  that  they  are  hairy,  and  that  the  lower  joint  of  each  leg, 
which  the  fly  uses  to  clean  the  rest  of  its  body,  is  like  a  stiff 
brush. 

The  Harm  done  by  House  Flies.  —  House  flies  may  often  try 
to  keep  themselves  tidy,  but  they  can  not  be  perfectly  clean, 
for  they  seek  their  food  on  rubbish  heaps  as  well  as  in  our 
kitchens  and  dining  rooms.  By  bringing  germs  of  disease  into 
our  houses  they  may  be  the  cause  of  sickness.     Typhoid  fever 


Life  History  of  House  Flies 

and  diphtheria  may  be  caused  by  flies.  As  they  can  carry 
some  diseases,  flies  should  be  kept  out  of  a  room  where  any 
one  is  sick. 

The  Life  of  a  Fly.  —  Are  all  house  flies  of  the  same  size  ? 
Do  little  house  flies  grow  to  become  big  ones  ?  House  flies 
lay  eggs  which  hatch  white  or  gray  worms,  called  maggots. 
In  this  state  a  young  fly  is  called  a  larva.  It  lives  as  a  larva 
about  a  week,  and  then  becomes  a  brown,  hard-shelled  object 
which  looks  much  like  a  large  kernel  of  wheat.  In  this  state 
the  young  fly  is  called  a  pupa,  and  can  neither  eat  nor  move. 
After  about  a  week  spent  as  a  pupa  the  insect  bursts  open  one 
end  of  its  shell,  and  goes  off  as  a  full-grown  winged  fly. 


16 


HOUSE   FLY 


Like  house  flies,  most  other  insects  pass  through  the  four 
forms  of  egg,  larva,  pupa,  and  winged  insect. 

In  winter  nearly  all  flies  die,  but  a  few  crawl  away  behind 
chimneys  and  other  sheltered  places  and  there  live  until  warm 
weather  comes  again.  On  sunny  windows  in  the  attic  and 
barn  you  may  often  see  house  flies  on  the  first  warm  days  of 
spring.  They,  and  others  that  have  lived  through  the  winter, 
will  be  the  parents  of  the  summer  swarms  of  flies. 

Other  Kinds  of  Flies.  —  Around  stables  and  on  horses  and 
cows  you  may  often  see  blood-sucking  flies  that  look  like  house 

flies.  Notice  that 
the  stable  fly  has  a 
sharp  bill  which  it 
carries  pointing  for- 
ward from  the  under 
side  of  its  head. 
When  eating,  the  fly 
thrusts  the  bill  into 
an  animal's  skin  like 
a  needle  and  sucks 
blood  through  it. 
In  stormy  weather 
the  stable  flies  come 
into  houses,  and  then 
people  often  mis- 
take them  for  house 
flies. 

On  decaying  meat  you  may  often  see  black  or  blue  flies 
somewhat  larger  than  house  flies.  These  flies  are  called  blue- 
bottle flies  or  bloivjlies.  The  flyhloivs  which  you  may  have  seen 
on  old  meat  are  clusters  of  their  yellowish  eggs  which  hatch 
out  larvas  as  house  flies'  eggs  do. 

There  are  many  other  kinds  of  flies.  What  kinds  that  come 
into  our  houses  do  you  know  ?  What  kinds  can  you  find  about 
horses  and  cattle  ? 


Stable  Fly  (Magnified) 


II.   MOSQUITO 

Material.  —  Some  wigglers  in  wide-mouthed  bottles  half  full  of  water, 
placed  on  tables  where  the  pupils  can  examine  them  at  their  leisure. 
Look  for  wigglers  in  uncovered  cans  or  pails  or  barrels  of  water  that  have 
stood  outdoors  for  some  days  where  mosquitoes  are  flying.  In  such  places 
any  small  creatures  that  swim  quickly  away  from  the  surface  when  the 
water  is  disturbed  are  almost  certainly  wigglers.  Keep  the  wigglers 
several  days  for  the  lessons  on  pupas  and  adult  mosquitoes.  Cover  the 
bottles  with  mosquito  netting  to  keep  the  insects  from  flying  away  when 
they  become  full-grown  mosquitoes. 

1.    THE   WIGGLER 

Observation.  —  What  is  the  size  of  a  wiggler  ? 
What  is  its  shape  ?  What  is  its  color  ?  In  what 
part  of  the  water  does  it  usually  rest  ?  Does  it  rest 
with  its  head,  or  with  its  tail,  downward  ?  Does  a 
resting  wiggler  touch  any  part  of  its  body  to  the 
surface  of  the  water  ? 

Jar  a  bottle  of  wigglers.  What  do  the  wigglers 
do  ?  How  does  a  wiggler  move  its  body  when  it 
swims  ?  How  long  does  it  remain  away  from  the 
top  of  the  water  ?  When  it  stops  swimming  does  it 
rise,  or  does  it  sink  ?  Do  you  think  it  is  heavier,  or 
lighter,  than  water  ? 

Drawing.  —  Draw  a  picture  of  a  jar  of  water  con- 
taining wigglers.  Draw  a  line  across  the  jar  to  show 
the  surface  of  the  water,  and  then  draw  some  wigglers 
in  the  water  as  you  see  them  at  rest. 

OVER.    NAT.    STUD. 2  17 


18 


MOSQUITO 


Composition.  —  Write  a  letter  to  some  friend  tell- 
ing Avliat  you  have  observed  about  wigglers.  In  your 
letter  Avrite  what  you  would  say  if  you  were  talking 
to  your  friend. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  WORK 

Mosquitoes'  Eggs.  —  You  may  often  see  black  specks  floating 
on  the  water  where  you  find  wigglers.  The  specks  may  be 
flakes  of  soot  from  a  chimney.  Pick  up  one  of  them  and 
crush  it  between  your  fingers.     If  it  is  made  up  of  long  grains, 


WiGGLER  (Magnified) 

it  is  probably  a  raft  of  eggs  which  a  mosquito  has  laid  on  top 
of  the  water.  Each  egg  hatches  out  a  tiny  larva  called  a 
loigcjler.  In  the  life  of  a  mosquito  the  egg  is  the  first  stage, 
and  the  wiggler  the  second. 

How  a  Wiggler  breathes.  —  A  wiggler  breathes  air  through 
a  tube  that  extends  sidewise  from  its  body  near  the  hinder  end. 
It  often  comes  to  the  top  of  the  water  to  breathe,  and  it  rests 
with  its  breathing  tube  open  to  the  air. 

What  Wigglers  eat.  —  Look  carefully  at  a  wiggler  at  rest, 
and  observe  its  mouth  parts.  Notice  how  it  keeps  them 
moving.  It  is  taking  in  particles  of  food  too  small  to  be 
seen  with  our  naked  eyes.  The  natural  home  of  wigglers  is  in 
stagnant  water,  in  such  places  as  cisterns,  rain  barrels,  hollow 


MOSQUITO 


19 


stumps,  and  pools.  In  these  places  the  water  is  often  yellow 
with  impurities.  The  wigglers  live  on  the  bits  of  matter  that 
are  in  the  water. 


2o    THE   PUPA 

Among  the  wigglers  you  may  see  a  few  that  are 
different  in  shape,  and  that  swim  with  their  bodies  in 
a  different  position  from 
the  others.  These  are  in 
the  third  stage  of  the  life 
of  a  mosquito,  and  are 
called  piqjas. 

Observation. — What  is 
the  shape  of  a  mosquito 
pupa  ?  What  is  its  color  ? 
When  it  is  still,  does  it 
rest  with  its  head  or  its 
tail  downward  ?  While  it 
is  at  rest  what  part  of  its 

body  touches  the  surface  of  the  water  ?  Where  are 
its  breathing  tubes?  What  parts  of  a  full-grown 
mosquito  do  you  see  in  the  pupa?  Do  you  find 
some  empty  wigglers'  skins  in  the  water  with  the 
pupas  ?     In  what  part  of  the  water  are  the  skins  ? 

Drawing  and  Composition.  —  Draw  a  picture  of  the 
pupa  of  a  mosquito  three  or  four  times  as  large  as 
a  pupa  is.  Write  a  short  paragraph  describing  the 
pupa,  and  another  paragraph  telling  what  the  pupa 
did  while  you  looked  at  it. 


Pupa  of  Mosquito  (Magnified) 


20  MOSQUITO 


SUPPLEMENTARY  WORK 

The  Habits  of  a  Mosquito  Pupa.  — When  a  wiggler  is  about 
to  become  a  pupa,  it  sheds  its  skin.  A  wiggler  usually  spends 
two  or  three  days  as  a  pupa  and  eats  nothing  during  that  time. 
It  no  longer  breathes  by  the  tail  end  of  its  body,  but  by  means 
of  two  tubes  that  extend  upward  from  its  back.  It  moves 
about  freely. 


3.   THE   FULL-GROWN   MOSQUITO 

Observation.  —  How  many  days  did  you  keep  the 
wigglers  before  one  changed  to  a  winged  mosquito  ? 
Look  at  a  mosquito.  What  is  the  shape  of  its  head  ? 
What  is  the  shape  of  its  bill  ?  What  is  the  shape  of 
a  mosquito's  thorax  ?  What  is  the  shape  of  its  ab- 
domen ?  Is  the  thorax  sharply  divided  from  the 
abdomen  ?  How  many  wings  has  a  mosquito  ?  What 
is  their  shape  ?  To  what  part  of  the  body  are  they 
joined  ?  How  many  legs  has  the  mosquito  ?  How 
many  joints  do  you  see  in  a  leg  ? 

Drawing.  —  Draw  a  picture  of  a  mosquito  as  you 
see  it  when  you  look  at  it  from  one  side.  Make  the 
picture  three  or  four  times  as  large  as  a  real  mosquito. 
A  mosquito  is  somewhat  humpbacked.  Draw  the 
head  and  body  in  the  shape  that  they  really  are  on 
the  mosquito. 

Composition.  —  Write  a  description  of  a  mosquito.. 
Write  it  in  paragraphs  like  those  in  the  outline  for 
the  composition  on  the  house  fly. 


MOSQUITO 


21 


SUPPLEMENTARY   WORK 

How  a  Wiggler  becomes  a  Mosquito.  —  While  a  wiggler  is  in 
the  form  of  a  pupa,  wings  and  legs  are  growing  beneath  the 
skin,  and  its  body  is  changing  to  the  body  of  a  full-grown  mos- 
quito. When  the  change  is  complete,  it  floats  on  the  water, 
its  skin  splits  down  its  back,  and  a  full-grown  mosquito  crawls 
out  and  flies  away,  leaving  an  empty  skin  on  the  water. 
Watch  the  wigglers  till  one  comes  out  of  its  pupa  case. 

How  Mosquitoes  Eat.  —  Look  carefully  at  the  mosquitoes  that 
come  from  the  jar  of  wigglers.  They  have  long  slender  bills 
through  which  they  suck  their  food.  Some  of  them  have  feath- 
ery feelers  on  their 
heads,  and  can  not  use 
their  bills  for  piercing 
the  skin  or  for  biting. 
These  are  the  father 
mosquitoes,  and  are  / 
sometimes  called  fuzz-  ; 
hills.  If  they  eat  at 
all,  they  must  sip  liq-  =, 
uid  food  as  house  flies  \ 
do.  The  mosquitoes  n 
that  bite  us  are  all 
mother  mosquitoes. 
Their  feelers  are  so 
small  that  you  can 
hardly  see  them. 

Kinds  of  Mosquitoes.  —  There  are  many  kinds  of  mosquitoes, 
differing  somewhat  from  one  another  in  looks  and  in  their 
mode  of  life,  but  all  of  them  spend  the  early  part  of  their  lives 
as  wigglers  under  water. 

The  Harm  done  by  Mosquitoes.  —  AVhen  a  mosquito  sucks 
blood,  it  leaves  behind  a  bit  of  poison  which  causes  a  raised 
spot  and  an  itching  on  the  skins  of  some  people. 


Mother  Mosquito  (Magnified) 


22 


MOSQUITO 


Germs  of   malaria  live  inside  the  bodies   of  one  kind  of 
mosquito.     When  these  mosquitoes  bite  a  person,  they  may 

leave  some  of  the  germs 
beneath  his  skin,  and  so 
may  cause  him  to  have 
malaria. 

How  to  get  rid  of  Mos- 
quitoes. —  We  can  not  get 
at  full-grown  mosquitoes 
to  kill  many  of  them,  but 
we  can  easily  kill  the 
wigglers  in  the  water. 
Since  mosquitoes  usually 
live  only  a  few  days,  a 
place  will    soon    be    free 

from    them    if    we    keep 
Father  Mosquito  (Magnified)  ^^^^    ^^^^^^^    ^^^^^^    ^^.^^ 

away  from  the  water  where  they  are  hatched.  We  can  do  this 
by  emptying  cans  and  pails  and  barrels  of  water  in  which 
wigglers  might  grow.  We  can  drain  the  pools,  or  we  can 
stock  them  with  fish  which  eat  the  wigglers.  We  can  keep 
the  water  of  stagnant  marshes  covered  with  kerosene  or  other 
oil  so  that  the  wigglers  can  not  get  air.  Since  some  mosquitoes 
may  be  bred  in  partly  filled  vases  and  bouquet  holders  in  our 
houses,  we  should  change  the  water  in  them  every  day  or  two. 


III.    BUTTERFLIES   AND   MOTHS 

Material.  — Some  caterpillars  kept  in  the  schoolroom  until  they  undergo 
their  changes.  Use  green  worms  from  cabbage  plants,  or  red  spiny  cater- 
pillars from  hop  vines,  or  smooth  yellow  and  black  caterpillars  from  milk- 
weeds. Each  of  these  will  usually  complete  its  changes  within  two  or 
three  weeks.  Other  kinds  of  caterpillars  may  be  used,  but  many  of  them 
do  not  complete  their  changes  until  winter  has  passed. 

1.    THE   CATERPILLAR 

Observation.  —  What  is  the  size  of  the  caterpillar 
that  you  observed  ?  What  is  its  shape  ?  What  is 
its  color  ?  How  many  joints  has  its  body  ?  Is  its 
body  naked,  or  is  it  covered  with  spines  or  hairs  ? 

Notice  two  kinds  of  legs  on  the  caterpillar.  How 
many  legs  are  on  the  front  end  of  its  body  ?  What 
is  their  shape  ?  How  many  legs  are  on  the  hinder 
half  of  its  body  ?     What  is  their  shape  ? 

Notice  a  caterpillar's  jaws.  Do  they  move  side- 
wise  or  up  and  down  ?  Does  a  caterpillar  suck  the 
juices  of  leaves,  or  does  it  lap  its  food  from  the  sur- 
face, or  does  it  bite  off  its  food  ?  Does  the  caterpil- 
lar eat  the  middle  or  the  edge  of  the  leaf  ? 

Drawing.  —  Draw  a  picture  of  a  caterpillar.  First, 
in  very  light  lines,  draw  a  figure  about  the  size  and 
shape  of  the  caterpillar.  Then,  in  heavy  lines  drawn 
over  the  light  ones,  make  the  head  and  tail  ends  in 

23 


24 


BUTTERFLIES   AND   MOTHS 


their  correct  shape,  and  the  wavy  lines  of  the  back  to 
show  the  correct  number  of  joints  in  its  body.  Draw 
its  legs,  and  then  the  spines  or  hairs  if  it  has  any. 

Composition.  —  Write  a  description  of  the  caterpil- 
lar that  you  observed.  In  the  first  paragraph  write 
about  its  body,  in  the  second  paragraph  about  its  legs, 
in  the  third  about  its  jaws. 


Nest  of  Web  Worms 


SUPPLEMENTARY  WORK 


What  Caterpillars  are.  —  Caterpillars  are  the  larvas  of  butter- 
flies or  of  moths.  They  are  hatched  from  eggs  which  are  laid 
by  the  winged   insects.     They  eat  leaves  and  young  plants. 


BUTTERFLIES   AND  MOTHS  25 

Many  of  the  worms  that  damage  our  trees  and  crops  are  cater- 
pillars. In  order  to  find  out  what  kind  of  butterfly  or  moth 
they  become  you  have  only  to  shut  them  up  until  they  change 
to  full-grown  insects. 

Web  Worms.  —  Some  kinds  of  caterpillars  spin  dense  webs 
in  which  they  live  at  night  and  on  damp  days.  You  may  often 
see  their  webs  on  fruit  trees,  where  the  caterpillars  sometimes 
stwip  the  limbs  bare  of  leaves. 

How  to  raise  Caterpillars.  —  Shut  the  caterpillars  in  a  lamp 
chimney,  fruit  jar,  or  small  box.  Cover  the  top  or  sides  with 
mosquito  netting  to  let  in  air.  Feed  the  caterpillars  with 
leaves  from  the  same  kind  of  plant  that  they  were  on  when 
you  found  them.  Take  away  the  old  leaves,  and  put  in  new 
ones  every  day.  Keep  the  cage  clean,  for  caterpillars  natu- 
rally live  on  clean  plants  and  in  fresh  air.  Give  the  caterpil- 
lars a  little  care  each  day.  They  will  thrive  and  soon  undergo 
a  wonderful  change. 

2.    THE   PUPA 

When  a  caterpillar  reaches  its  full  size,  it  sheds  its 
skin  and  becomes  a  pupa  which  looks  entirely  differ- 
ent from  the  larva.  It  remains  motionless  for  a  few 
days  or  weeks  while  further  changes  take  place  that 
make  it  a  winged  creature. 

Observation.  —  How  long  did  you  keep  the  cater- 
pillar before  it  changed  to  a  pupa  ?  In  what  part  of 
the  cage  did  it  go  to  become  a  pupa  ?  Look  carefully 
at  the  pupa  to  see  how  it  is  held  in  its  place.  What 
is  the  size  of  the  pupa  that  you  observed  ?  What  is 
its  shape  ?  What  is  its  color  ?  Touch  it  to  find  out 
whether  its  shell  is  hard  or  soft.     Does  it  move  at 


26  BUTTERFLIES  AND  MOTHS 

all  ^vhen  you  touch  it  ?     Look  for  the  skin  that  the 
caterpillar  shed. 

Drawing  and  Composition.  —  Draw  a  picture  of 
the  pupa  that  you  saw.  Write  a  paragraph  telling 
how  the  caterpillar  that  it  came  from  had  prepared 
itself  for  its  change,  and  another  paragraph  describ- 
ing the  pujDa. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  WORK 

Caterpillar  Silk.  —  A  few  kinds  of  caterpillars  bury  them- 
selves in  the  ground  when  they  are  about  to  change  to  pupas, 
but  most  kinds  hang  themselves  up  by  threads  of  silk  which 
they  spin.  Put  a  small  caterpillar,  such  as  a  measuring  worm, 
on  the  end  of  a  lead  pencil  and  then  make  it  drop  off.  It 
often  catches  itself  by  a  thread  that  it  spins  while  it  is  fall- 
ing. Wait  and  see  what  the  caterpillar  does  when  it  gets  over 
its  fright. 

Cocoons.  —  When  some  kinds  of  caterpillars  are  about  to 
become  pupas,  they  spin  coverings,  or  cocoons,  in  which  they 
lie  until  they  change  to  winged  insects.  Many  of  the  pupas 
pass  the  winter  in  their  coverings.  Those  caterpillars  that 
spin  cocoons  become  moths.  Sometimes  you  may  find  a  green 
caterpillar  as  large  as  your  thumb  lying  under  a  walnut  or 
maple  tree.  Put  one  in  a  cage  and  feed  it.  When  it  is  ready 
to  change  to  a  pupa,  it  will  spin  a  thick  cocoon  around  itself. 
Watch  the  caterpillar  as  it  spins.  If  you  keep  the  cocoon 
until  next  spring,  a  beautiful  moth  will  probably  come  from  it. 

3.    THE   BUTTERFLY    OR   MOTH 

Observation.  —  What  is  the  shape  of  the  butterfly's 
head?  How  is  it  joined  to  the  body?  How  many 
feelers  has  it  ?     What  is  the  shape  of  its  feelers  ? 


BUTTERFLIES   AND   MOTHS  27 

What  is  the  shape  of  the  tip  of  a  feeler  ?  Look  for 
the  butterfly's  tongue.  What  is  the  shape  of  the 
butterfly's  thorax?  What  is  the  shape  of  its  ab- 
domen ?  With  what  are  the  thorax  and  abdomen 
covered  ?  How  many  legs  has  the  butterfly  ?  How 
many  wings  has  the  butterfly  ?  What  is  their  color  ? 
What  is  their  shape  ?  What  markings  do  you  see  on 
them  ?     With  what  are  they  covered  ? 

Drawing.  —  Draw  a  picture  of  a  butterfly  with  its 
wings  in  the  position  in  which  you  saw  them.  First, 
using  light  lines,  draw  its  body,  head,  and  feelers, 
and  then  draw  its  wings.  Try  to  put  in  the  principal 
markings  on  its  wings.  Then  go  over  the  lines  again 
and  make  them  heavy. 

Composition.  —  Write  a  description  of  the  butterfly 
that  you  observed.  Make  a  paragraph  about  its 
head,  another  paragraph  about  its  body,  and  a  third 
paragraph  about  its  wings. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  WORK 

Difference  between  a  Butterfly  and  a  Moth.  —  In  every  stage 
of  their  lives  butterflies  and  moths  are  much  alike.  During 
the  egg  and  caterpillar  stages  there  is  no  apparent  difference 
between  them. 

A  butterfly  pupa  is  naked  and  is  hung  by  a  thread.  Most 
moth  pupas  are  covered  with  a  silken  cocoon.  A  few  bury 
themselves  underground. 

A  butterfly's  feelers  are  slender  and  have  knobbed  tips, 
while  a  moth's  feelers  are  often  feathery  and  are  never 
knobbed. 


28 


BUTTERFLIES   AND   MOTHS 


Life  History  of  the  Violet-tip  Butterfly 


A  butterfly  rests  with  its  wings  standing  on  end,  while  a 
moth  either  spreads  its  wings  out  sidewise  or  folds  them  flat 
on  its  back. 

Most  moths  are  night  flyers,  but  butterflies  fly  only  by  day. 

Some  Common  Kinds  of  Butterflies  and  Moths.  —  From  green 
cabbage  worms  there  come  the  small  white  and  yellow  butter- 
flies that  are  common  in  summer  and  early  fall. 

From  a  spiny,  hop-vine  caterpillar  there  comes  a  beautiful 
dark  red  butterfly  with  violet  edges  on  its  wings.  It  is  called 
the  violet-tip  butterfly. 

From  the  striped,  light  green  caterpillars  on  milkweeds  there 
come  large  brown  butterflies  whose  wings  are  marked  and  bor- 
dered with  black.     These  are  the  monarch  butterflies. 

From  the  green  caterpillars  on  parsley  and  carrots  there 
come  black  butterflies  with  long  projections  on  their  hind 
wings.     They  are  called  sivallowtail  butterflies. 


BUTTERFLIES  AND  MOTHS 


29 


From   the  fuzzy  caterpillars  that  spin   webs   on   trees  in 
the   fall  small   white   moths  come  out  during  the  following 


IS"". 


spring. 

Raise  a  few  different  kinds  of  caterpillars  in  a  cage,  to  find 
out  what  kind  of  butterflies  or  moths  they  become. 

How  Butterflies  and  Moths  eat.  —  Butterflies  and  moths  live 
principally  by  sucking  honey  from  flowers  through  their  long 
hollow  tongues.  On  many  kinds  you  can  easily  see  the  tongue 
coiled  up  like  a  clock  spring.  Many  kinds  have  no  tongues, 
and  do  not  eat  in  the  winged  form. 

Enemies  of  Butterflies  and  Moths.  —  Of  all  the  worms  and 
caterpillars  that  are  hatched  out  each  summer,  only  a  few 
become  winged 
insects.  The  rest 
are  eaten  up  by 
other  creatures. 
A  song  bird  eats 
dozens  of  cater- 
pillars each  sum- 
mer's da}^,  and  all 
through  the  win- 
ter the  woodpeck- 
ers,     chickadees, 

and  other  birds  are  seeking  the  pupas  under  the  bark  of  trees 
and  in  the  shelter  of  fences. 

Small  insects  also  destroy  the  larger  ones.  On  tomato  and 
potato  vines  you  sometimes  see  green  caterpillars  whose  backs 
are  covered  with  white  things  that  look  like  grains  of  rice. 
These  are  cocoons,  and  were  spun  bjr  tiny  worms  that  had  been 
living  in  the  tomato  worm's  flesh.  If  you  should  try  to  keep 
the  tomato  worm,  it  would  soon  die,  but  from  each  cocoon  you 
would  get  a  small  black  fly  (ichneumon  fly)  that  would  lay 
its  eggs  beneath  another  tomato  worm's  skin  if  it  had  the 
chance.  Flies  like  these  are  plentiful,  and  their  young  destroy 
many  of  the  caterpillars  that  escape  the  birds. 


Tomato  Worm  and  Cocoons  of  Ichneumon  Flies 


30 


BUTTERFLIES  AND  MOTHS 


Preserving  Butterflies  and  Moths.  —  Butterflies  and  moths  may 
be  killed  painlessly  by  putting  them  in  a  tightly  closed  fruit 
jar  with  a  few  drops  of  chloroform.     After  at  least  an  hour 


Drying  Frame 


take  them  out  and  pin  their  outstretched  wings  to  a  board  to 
dry.  The  dried  specimens  must  be  kept  protected  from  carpet 
beetles  and  other  insects  that  would  eat  them  up. 


This  lesson  is  continued  in  Lesson  XIV,  on  Cocoons. 


IV.     MUSHROOMS 

Material.  — Umbrella  mushrooms  or  toadstools  brought  by  the  pupils 
themselves,  if  possible.  Look  for  them  in  pastures  and  lawns  after  a 
rain,  on  decaying  stumps  and  trees,  in  woods,  and  along  the  edges  of 
swamps.     Get  a  variety,  so  as  to  compare  the  different  kinds. 

Some  mushrooms  are  deadly  poison  if  eaten.  So 
no  pupil  should  taste  any  mushroom  in  the  field 
or  schoolroom ,  but  all  mushrooms  may  safely  be 
handled. 

Observation.  —  How  many  inches  tall  is  the  mush- 
room that  you  are  studying  ?  What  is  its  shape  ? 
What  is  its  odor  ?  What  is  its  color  ?  How  does  it 
feel  to  the  touch?  How  was  it  fastened  to  the 
ground  ? 

How  many  inches  across  is  the  top  part  of  the 
mushroom  ?  Notice  its  skin ;  can  you  easily  peel  it 
off  ?     How  thick  is  it  ? 

Notice  the  folds  or  gills  on  the  under  side  of  the 
top  part.  How  many  are  they?  What  is  their 
shape  ?     What  is  their  color  ? 

Break  the  stem  in  two.  Is  it  soft,  or  firm  and 
stringy  ?  Is  it  hollow  ?  Do  you  find  any  worms 
inside  ? 

Drawing.  —  Draw  a  picture  of  the  mushroom, 
showing  it  tilted  a  little  away  from  you,  so  that  some 

31 


32 


MUSHROOMS 


of  the  folds  on  its  under  side  can  be  seen.  The  lower 
edge  of  the  top  is  a  circle,  but  as  you  look  at  it,  does 
it  look  like  a  circle,  or  do  its  front  and  back  edges 
seem  near  together,  as  if  the  ring  were  flattened? 
Draw  the  ring  as  it  looks  in  the  position  in  which 
you  see  it. 

Composition.  —  Write  a  description  of  the  mush- 
room that  you  have  been  studying.  Make  a  para- 
graph about  the  appearance  of  the  whole  plant, 
another  paragraph  about  what  you  find  when  you 
examine  tlie  top  part  carefully,  and  a  third  paragraph 

about  the  stem. 
Choose  your  words 
so  that  they  shall 
describe  this  mush- 
room and  no  other. 

SUPPLEMENTARY 
WORK 

Toadstools.  —  Um- 
brella mushrooms  are 
commonly  called  toad- 
stools, whether  they  are 
good  to  eat  or  not. 
Some  are  as  large  as 
dinner  plates,  and  oth- 
ers are  as  small  as  peas. 
They  vary  in  color  from 

Umbrella  Mushrooms  ^hite     to     purple     and 

dark  red.  They  grow 
on  all  sorts  of  soil,  from  sand  to  decaying  wood.  Notice  them 
when  you  see  them,  and  keep  count  of  how  many  kinds  you  find. 


MUSHROOMS 


33 


Other  Mushrooms.  —  Other  kinds  of  mushrooms  are  shaped 

like  shelves,  and  grow  on  trees  and  stumps.     These  kinds  are 

often   as    hard    as  wood. 

Other    kinds,   that    grow 

on    trees,   are    branching 

masses  of  yellow  and  red 

that    at  a   distance    look 

almost  like  flames. 

You    may     sometimes 

find    a    small    mushroom 

that  is  like  a  cone  stand- 
ing with  its  large  end  up, 

and  holding   some  grains 

about    the    size    of    pin- 
heads.     This  is   called  a 

bird's-nest  mushroom,  be- 
cause it  looks  like  a  nest 

with  eggs. 

Some  common  kinds  of 

ground    mushrooms    look 

like  balls,  and  are  called 

puffballs.        When      ripe 

their  inner  parts  become 

a  brown  or   purple  dust, 

that  flies  out  like  dust  when  vou  crush  the  balls.     This  dust  is 

made  up  of  very  small  balls  called  spores. 
Each  spore  can  grow  and  produce  new  puff- 
balls. 

One  kind  of  mushroom  looks  like  a  small 
puffball  set  in  a  star.  It  is  found  in  bare, 
sandy  fields  and  woods,  and  is  called  an  earth- 
star.  If  you  find  one,  wet  it  and  let  it  dry 
again,  and  see  what  the  rays  of  the  star  do. 
Earthstar  Spores  of  Umbrella  Mushrooms. —Cut  off 

the  top  from  a  full-grown  mushroom,  and  place  it  right  side  up 

OV'ER.   NAT.   STUD.  3 


Shelf  Mushrooms 


34 


MUSHROOMS 


on  a  piece  of  smooth  paper  under  a  tumbler.  In  a  few  hours 
you  may  get  a  print  or  picture  of  the  gills  made  by  the  spores 
that  fall  from  them.    The  wind  carries  spores  everywhere,  and 

so  mushrooms  are 
likely  to  be  found 
wherever  there  is  the 
right  kind  of  soil. 

Mushroom  Plants 
in  the  Soil. —Mush- 
rooms have  no  real 
roots,  but  they  spring 
from  a  network  of 
frail  threads  that 
look  almost  like 
mold.  These  threads 
are  the  real  plants. 
They  grow  beneath 
the  surface  of  the 
soil,  and  the  parts 
above  ground  are  only 
their  fruit.  The  threads  growing  through  a  tree  trunk  or 
other  substance  cause  decay,  just  as  mold  does. 

Food  Mushrooms.  —  Have  you  ever  eaten  mushrooms  ?  What 
do  they  taste  like  ? 

The  common  kind  of  mushroom  that  we  eat  always  grows 
in  open  fields.  It  is  all  white  except  its  gills,  which  are  pink 
or  brown.  It  has  a  pleasant  odor,  and  the  skin  easily  peels 
from  its  top.  But  you  should  not  taste  any  of  the  mushrooms 
until  some  one  has  shown  you  how  to  know  them. 


Spore  Print 


V.   DANDELION 

Material. — For  the  first  part  of  the  lesson,  dandelion  flowers,  and  for 
the  second  part,  ripe  dandelion  heads  that  are  open,  —  both  brought  by 
the  pupils  if  possible. 

1.    A  DANDELION    FLOWER 

Observation.  —  How  large  is  a  dandelion  head  ? 
What  is  its  shape  ?  What  is  its  color  ?  What  is  its 
odor  ?     About  how  many  colored  petals  has  it  ? 

Break  apart  a  head  and  take  one  of  the  yellow 
petals.  What  is  the  shape  of  the  petal  ?  Notice  the 
slender  stalk  that  rises  from  the  center  of  the  petal. 
Into  how  many  parts  is  its  tip  split  ?  Where  is  the 
greenish  seed  to  which  the  petal  is  fast  ? 

Look  carefully  at  the  green  fringe  underneath  the 
flower.     About  how  many  points  has  it  ? 

How  long  is  the  flower  stalk  of  the  dandelion  that 
you  are  studying  ?  What  is  its  color  ?  Is  it  solid 
or  hollow  ?  Is  it  hard  or  soft  ?  What  is  the  color 
of  the  juice  ?     How  does  the  juice  taste  ? 

Drawing.  —  Draw  a  dandelion  flower,  showing  its 
colored  petals,  its  green  fringes,  and  its  stalk. 

Draw  also  a  single  one  of  the  colored  petals  and  its 
seed  two  or  three  times  enlarged. 

35 


36 


DANDELION 


Composition.  —  Describe  a  dandelion  flower.     Make 
a  paragraph  about  each  of  the  topics  in  the  following 

outline :  — 

The  whole  flower. 

A  single  petal. 

The  green  fringe. 

The  flower  stalk. 


SUPPLEMENTARY   WORK 

Florets.  —  What  we  call  a  dandelion  flower  is  a  cluster  of 
many  flowers  caWed  Jto rets.  Each  floret  is  a  blossom  with  one 
seed,  and  is  as  separate  from  the  other  florets  in  a  head  as  an 

apple  blossom  is  from 
the  other  apple  blos- 
soms in  a  cluster.  At 
the  bottom  of  each 
floret  is  a  drop  of 
honey  which  bees  are 
looking  for  when  they 
crawl  over  the  plant. 
Are  all  the  florets  open 
at  once  ? 

Dandelions  on  a 
Lawn.  —  Dandelions 
spring  up  everywhere 
on  our  lawns  and  along 
our  fences,  and  noth- 
ing seems  to  kill  them. 
Can  you  cut  the  leaves 
off  with  a  lawn  mower? 
Can  animals  bite  them 
off  readily  ?  Can  you 
Dandelion  Plant  pull  a  dandelion  plant 


DANDELION  37 

up  easily  ?  How  does  its  bitter  juice  protect  the  plant  ?  A 
dandelion  plant  can  grow  close  to  the  ground  out  of  the  way 
of  harm,  but  it  raises  its  ripe  seeds  up  on  slender  stalks,  and 
the  wind  and  passers-by  scatter  them. 

Dandelions  have  fleshy  roots  which  furnish  a  store  of  food 
for  the  plants  to  use  at  any  time.  In  early  spring  the  plants 
quickly  grow,  and  help  to  make  our  lawns  green  before  the 
grass  starts,  and  later  they  decorate  our  yards  with  yellow 
blossoms. 

How  Dandelion  Flowers  sleep.  —  Have  you  ever  noticed  what 
a  dandelion  flower  does  at  night  ?  Although  the  yard  may  be 
yellow  with  the  flowers  all  through  the  day,  at  nightfall  none 
can  be  seen,  for  the  heads  close  up  as  if  they  were  asleep.  The 
flowers  then  look  like  large  buds. 

Other  Sleeping  Flowers.  —  Did  you  ever  go  to  pick  flowers 
by  lantern  light  and  find  them  closed,  as  if  their  buds  had  not 
opened  ?  About  what  time  of  the  day  do  morning  glories 
close  ?  What  other  flowers  do  you  know  that  are  closed  at 
night  ? 

Look  at  a  clover  plant,  or  a  locust  tree,  at  night.  What  is 
the  difference  between  the  day  position  and  the  night  position 
of  their  leaves  ?  Some  flowers,  like  the  evening  primrose,  are 
closed  during  the  day  and  are  usually  open  only  at  night. 


2.    A   RIPE   DANDELION   HEAD 

Have  you  ever  blown  a  ripe  dandelion  head  to 
pieces  to  see  if  your  mother  wanted  you  ?  If  you 
have,  the  dandelion  probably  told  you  more  about 
itself  than  it  did  about  your  mother. 

Observation.  —  On  how  tall  a  stalk  is  the  ripe 
dandelion  head  ?  What  is  the  shape  of  the  head  ? 
What  is  its  size  ?     Of  what  is  the  head  composed  ? 


38  DANDELION 

Where  are  the  dandehon  seeds  ?  About  how  many 
seeds  are  there  ?  What  is  the  shape  of  the  part  of 
the  flower  stalk  to  which  the  seeds  are  fastened  ? 
What  is  its  size  ?     Notice  the  fringe  just  beneath  it. 

Pull  a  seed  off  from  a  head.  What  is  the  size  of 
the  seed  ?  What  is  its  shape  ?  What  grows  from  its 
top?  Blow  a  seed  away  from  you  and  notice  the 
manner  in  which  the  seed  floats  through  the  air. 
With  which  end  up  does  it  alight  ?  Of  what  use  does 
the  fluff  seem  to  be  to  the  seed  ? 

Drawing  and  Composition.  —  Draw  a  picture  of  a 
ripe  dandelion  head,  and  another  picture  of  a  single 
seed.  Then  describe  the  same  things  in  word  pictures 
by  writing  a  paragraph  about  each  of  them. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  WORK 

Ripening  Changes.  —  Cut  a  dandelion  flovrer  in  two  length- 
wise and  look  for  the  same  parts  that  are  in  a  ripe  head.  Find 
the  green  seed  and  the  white  fluff.  How  near  to  the  seed  is 
the  fluff  in  the  yellow  head  ?  How  near  is  it  in  a  ripe  head  ? 
When  a  dandelion  flower  begins  to  wither,  it  closes  up,  and  the 
tongues  of  its  green  fringe  shut  together  in  a  tight  covering  so 
that  the  head  looks  like  an  unopened  bud.  The  seeds  now  ripen 
and  send  up  slender  stems  which  lift  the  fluff  up  like  umbrellas, 
and  push  the  dried  flowers  out  so  that  they  fall  away.  Then 
the  head  opens  once  more,  and  its  seeds  are  blown  away. 

Wind-carried  Seeds.  —  If  you  blow  a  ripe  dandelion  head  to 
pieces,  how  far  will  a  seed  travel  ?  If  a  seed  had  no  fluffy 
tuft,  would  the  plants  spread  as  they  do?  Why  do  dan- 
delions spring  up  on  lawns  after  all  the  old  plants  have  been 
killed  ? 


DANDELION 


39 


Why  do  dandelions,  milkweeds,  thistles,  and  other  plants 
spring  up  on  heaps  of  soil  soon  after  it  is  thrown  out  of  cellars 
and  wells  ?  Do 
you  think  the 
seeds  had  lain 
buried  beneath 
the  ground  or 
were  they  brought 
to  the  heap  af- 
ter the  soil  was 
thrown  up?  Have 
you  seen  grass  and 
weeds  growing  on 
the  roofs  of  old 
houses  ?  How  did 
the  plants  get 
there  ? 

Notice       the 
seeds   in   a  milk- 
weed pod.     What  is  the  shape  of  a  seed  ?     What  is  the  dif- 
ference between  the  fluff  on  a  milkweed  seed  and  the  fluff  on 
a  dandelion  seed  ?     If  milkweeds  are  plentiful,  you  may  some- 
times see  their  seeds  floating  high  up  in  the  air. 

Pull  a  ripe  cat-tail  to  pieces.  Each  tiny  bunch  of  floss  on  a 
cat-tail  is  attached  to  a  seed.  How  many  seeds  do  you  suppose 
each  cat-tail  sends  out  ?  Give  one  reason  why  cat-tails  are 
plentiful  in  muddy  swamps. 

What  other  seeds  do  you  know  that  have  fluffy  wings  ? 

Cotton  is  the  fluff  that  is  fast  to  the  seeds  of  the  cotton 
plant,  like  the  fluff  on  milkweed  seeds. 


Dandelion  Heads 


VI.    SPIDER  WEBS 

Material.  —  Some  webs  of  the  kind  that  look  like  wheels  (orb  webs). 
Look  for  orb  webs  stretched  between  the  limbs  of  bushes  or  on  fences 
or  over  windows.  Catch  the  threads  on  a  slate  frame  or  on  a  hoop  held 
against  them.  Also  catch  a  spider  on  another  web  of  the  same  kind  by 
holding  a  box  on  one  side  of  it,  and  the  cover  on  the  other,  and  bringing 
the  two  together  quickly.    Put  the  spiders  in  bottles  for  examination. 

Observation.  —  In  what  directions  do  the  threads 
of  the  web  run  ?  Are  the  threads  spun  around  the 
center  in  circles,  or  in  spirals?  Are  any  of  the 
threads    stuck  together  ?     Are  any  broken  ? 

Touch  one  of  the  lines  that  run  around  the  center. 
Is  it  sticky  ?  Does  it  stretch  ?  Now  try  one  of  the 
straight  lines  in  the  same  way.  What  is  the  differ- 
ence between  the  two  lines  ?  By  which  set  of  lines 
are  insects  caught  ? 

How  large  are  the  spiders  that  make  the  webs  ? 
What  is  their  color  ?  How  many  legs  has  a  spider  ? 
Notice  the  divisions  of  a  spider's  body.  Are  they  the 
same  as  the  divisions  of  a  fly's  body  ? 

Drawing.  —  Draw  a  picture  of  the  spider  web.  If 
any  of  the  threads  sag,  be  sure  that  you  draw  them 
sagging  in  the  right  direction. 

Composition.  —  Write  a  paragraph  telling  how 
the  threads  of  the  spider  web  are  arranged,  a  second 

40 


SPIDER   WEBS 


41 


paragraph  describing  the  threads,  and  a  third  para- 
graph about  the  spider  that  made  the  web. 


SUPPLEMENTARY   WORK 

How  an  Orb  Web  is  spun.  —  When  an  orb- web  spider 
spins  its  web,  it  first  makes  the  straight  lines  that  form  the 
spokes  of  the  wheeh    Then  it  starts  at  the  center  with  the  same 


Orb  Web 

kind  of  lines  and  stretches  threads  round  and  round  the  web 
from  spoke  to  spoke  as  far  apart  as  it  can  reach.  At  the  outer 
edge  of  the  web  it  turns  back  and  uses  this  first  set  of  spiral 
lines  to  walk  on  while  it  lays  down  a  spiral  of  sticky  lines  near 
together,  destroying  the  first  set  as  it  works  toward  the  center. 
Late  in  an  autumn  afternoon  look  on  bushes  and  weeds  for  a 
spider  spinning  its  web. 


42  SPIDER   WEBS 

How  a  Falling  Spider  catches  Itself.  —  Gently  brush  a  small 
spider  off  from  a  book  or  pencil.  Does  it  fall  to  the  ground  ? 
How  does  it  catch  itself  ?  Does  it  hang  by  its  head,  or  by  the 
hind  part  of  its  body  ?  With  what  part  of  its  body  does  it  spin 
its  thread  ?     How  does  it  pull  itself  up  again  ? 

How  a  Spider  hunts.  —  A  web  is  a  spider's  hunting  net 
which  it  spreads  for  insects.  Some  of  the  threads  are  sticky 
and  cling  to  the  insects  which  touch  them.  As  an  insect 
struggles  to  get  free  it  becomes  entangled  in  other  threads,  for 
the  sticky  threads  stretch.  If  the  threads  did  not  stretch,  what 
would  be  likely  to  happen  when  a  large  fly  stuck  fast  in  a  web  ? 

Web  Bridges  and  Balloons.  —  Have  you  ever  felt  spider  webs 
on  your  face  as  you  walked  along  a  path  ?  When  some  kinds 
of  spiders  wish  to  travel,  the}^  crawl  up  a  post  or  tree  and  spin 
lines  so  light  that  the  wind  holds  them  up.  The  lines  catch  in 
neighboring  trees,  and  then  the  spiders  have  suspension  bridges 
on  which  they  can  travel.  Sometimes  a  spider  will  cut  his  line 
loose  and  float  away  on  it  for  a  long  distance  as  on  a  balloon. 

Place  a  small  bottle  in  a  dish  of  water,  and  in  the  bottle 
stand  a  stick  or  long  lead  pencil.  Place  a  spider  on  the  stick. 
The  water  will  prevent  the  spider  from  crawling  away.  Watch 
the  spider  as  he  spins  a  thread,  and  escapes  by  means  of  it. 

Spider  Web  Cloth.  —  Twist  some  spider  webs  into  a  string. 
How  strong  a  string  can  you  make  ?  Spider's  thread  is  a  kind 
of  silk,  and  has  been  woven  into  cloth  of  great  thinness  and 
beauty. 

Kinds  of  Spider  Webs.  —  The  common  house  spiders  build 
webs  that  are  a  tangle  of  threads  running  in  every  direction. 
These  webs  are  called  cobwebs. 

In  the  morning  you  may  often  see  flat  spider  webs  spread 
out  on  the  grass,  looking  like  saucers  of  pearls  as  they  are 
filled  with  shining  dewdrops.  Examine  one  of  these  webs  and 
notice  the  tube  in  which  the  spider  lives.  Notice  also  that  the 
tube  has  a  back  door  out  of  which  the  spider  escapes  when  you 
try  to  catch  it. 


SPIDER  *WEBS  43 

I>igging  Spiders.  —  Some  kinds  of  spiders  do  not  build  webs, 
but  catch  their  prey  by  pouncing  upon  it  as  a  cat  catches  a 
mouse.  Several  kinds  of  spiders  live  in  holes  which  they  dig 
in  the  ground  and  line  with  a  smooth  layer  of  their  silk. 
Some  kinds  leave  the  holes  open,  some  cover  them  with  trap- 
doors, and  others  build  boxes  of  sticks  and  leaves  around  the 
entrances.  If  you  hnd  a  smooth  hole  about  the  size  of  your 
finger  going  straight  into  the  ground,  it  is  probably  the  home 
of  a  large,  gray -haired  spider. 

A  Spider's  Eggs.  —  On  cobwebs  in  dwelling  houses  you  may 
sometimes  find  brown,  pea-shaped  balls.  These  are  nests  of 
spiders'  eggs.  The  eggs  do  not  hatch  out  caterpillars,  but  fully 
formed  spiders.  Before  the  young  spiders  leave  the  nest  they 
often  eat  one  another  until  only  a  few  are  left. 

Under  stones  and  boards  and  the  bark  of  trees  you  may 
sometimes  find  patches  of  silk  about  the  size  of  a  finger  nail. 
These,  too,  are  probably  the  nests  of  spiders.  You  may  some- 
times mistake  them  for  the  cocoons  of  caterpillars. 

Daddy  Longlegs.  —  On  low  bushes  you  may  sometimes  see 
small  spiderlike  creatures  with  enormously  long  legs.  These 
are  daddy  longlegs,  or  harvestmen.  They  can  not  harm  an 
animal  or  plant.  They  spin  no  webs,  but  live  by  pouncing 
on  small  insects,  mainly  plant  lice.  How  many  legs  has  a 
daddy  longlegs  ?  When  it  walks,  how  high  above  its  feet 
does  it  carry  its  body  ? 


VII.     GOLDEN-ROD 

Material.  —  Golden-rod  flowers  brought  by  the  pupils  themselves. 

Observation.  —  How  tall  is  the  stalk  of  golden-rod 
that  you  are  studying  ?  How  many  branches  has  it  ? 
How  far  from  the  top  does  it  begin  to  branch  ?  What 
is  the  shape  of  the  flowering  part  of  tlie  golden-rod  ? 
Are  the  flowers  along  only  one  side  of  the  branchy 
or  along  both  sides?  Do  the  flowers  stand  straight 
up  or  hang  down  from  the  stalk  ?  What  is  the  odor 
of  the  flowers  ? 

Pick  one  of  the  small  flowers  from  a  spray  of 
golden-rod  blossoms.  What  is  its  shape  ?  How  large 
is  it  ?  Tear  it  apart  carefully.  Of  how  many  florets 
is  it  composed  ?  What  is  the  shape  of  one  of  the 
florets  ?     Compare  it  with  a  dandelion  floret. 

Drawing.  —  Draw  a  picture  of  a  small  spray  of 
golden-rod  flowers.  First,  draw  the  main  stem  and 
its  principal  branches  with  light  lines.  Then  draw 
the  flowers  all  along  the  tops  of  the  branches. 
Each  flower  in  a  spray  is  like  an  urn  or  vase  on  a 
slender  stem.  Draw  the  leaves  below  the  flowers, 
and,  lastly,  go  over  the  drawing  and  make  the  lines 
heavier. 

44 


GOLDEN-ROD 


45 


Composition.  —  Describe  a  single  one  of  the  golden- 
rod  plants  that  you  have  studied.  There  are  so  many 
kinds  of  golden-rod  that  you  could  not  write  a  descrip- 
tion to  fit  them  all  exactly.  Write  about  a  single 
plant  so  that  any  one  going  across  a  field  would  know 
that  kind  of  golden-rod  if  he  should  see  it. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  WORK 

Kinds  of  Golden-rod.  —  During  an  afternoon's  walk  you  can 
often  find  half  a  dozen  kinds  of  golden-rod.  Some  are  tall,  and 
some  have  short  stems.  Some  bear  their  flowers  in  flat 
heads,  and  others  bear  theirs 
in  drooping  plumes.  Some 
have  broad,  flat  leaves,  and 
others  have  leaves  almost  as 
narrow  and  pointed  as  pine 
needles.  See  how  many 
kinds  you  can  find.  Look 
for  a  white  kind  in  or  near 
the  woods.  AVhere  do  you 
find  the  most  of  the  flat- 
headed  kind?  Where  do  the 
tallest  kinds  grow  ? 

Insect  Visitors.  —  Watch 
a  blossoming  golden-rod  in 
a  field  or  wood  for  a  few 
minutes.  How  many  kinds 
of  insects  visit  it  ?  Do 
you  see  an  insect  about  an  inch  in  length  with  hard  black 
wings  crossed  with  yellow  bands  ?  The  larva  of  this  insect 
does  great  damage  to  locust  trees,  for  it  lives  in  tunnels  which 
it  bores  through  the  wood.  It  is  called  a  locust-tree  borer.  Do 
you  see  any  bees  on  the  golden-rod  ?     Do  you  see  any  flies  that 


Golden-rod 


46 


GOLDEN-ROD 


spring 


look  like  bees  ?     A  bee  has  four  wings.     How  many  wings  has 

ally? 

Golden-rod  in  a  Flower  Garden.  —  Dig  up  some  golden-rod 
roots  in  the  spring  and  set  them  by  a  fence,  or  at  the  corner  of 
an  outbuilding.  If  you  move  the  roots  carefully,  they  will 
grow  and  produce  a  beautiful  clump  of  flowers  year  after  year. 
Golden-rod  grows  either  from  seed  or  from  its  old  roots 
which  live  through  the  winter  and  send  up  new  shoots  in  the 
Examine 'the  roots  of  a  plant.     Can  you  find  any  sign 

of  last  year's  stalk  ?  Has  it 
under  ground  the  beginnings  of 
next  year's  stalk  ? 

The  National  Flower.  —  The 
lily  is  the  national  flower  of 
Erance,  and  the  thistle  of  Scot- 
land. Why  would  the  golden- 
rod  be  a  good  choice  for  the 
national  flower  of  the  United 
States  ?  Do  you  prefer  some 
other  flower  ?     Which  one  ? 

Golden-rod  Seeds.  —  After 
golden-rod  flowers  wither  the 
head  still  keeps  its  shape,  but 
then  it  looks  gray  and  fluffy. 
Pluck  a  ripe  head.  Where  are 
the  seeds  ?  How  large  is  a 
seed  ?  What  is  on  the  top  of 
each  seed  ?  Of  what  use  to  the  seed  is  the  tuft  ?  How  long 
do  golden-rod  seeds  cling  to  the  stalk  ? 

Bird  Seeds.  —  You  may  often  see  birds  picking  the  seeds 
from  the  naked  stalks  of  bitter  weed,  or  ragiceed,  as  it  is  often 
called.  The  seeds  of  this  plant  are  not  in  the  tassels  on  the 
ends  of  the  branches.  Look  at  a  plant  carefully  and  note  the 
location  and  size  of  the  seeds. 

Along  fence  rows  and  in  newly  cleared  ground  the  low  stalks 


Golden-rod 


GOLDEN-ROD  47 

of  wild  sunflowers  often  grow  and  produce  a  harvest  of  seeds 
for  the  birds. 

On  a  sunny  day,  when  the  ground  is  deeply  covered  with 
snow,  watch  the  birch  trees  and  see  what  birds  come  to  eat 
the  seeds.  What  other  plants  do  you  know  that  furnish  seeds 
to  the  birds  in  winter  ? 

Asters.  —  The  most  common  fall  flowers  are  golden-rods  and 
asters.  Nearly  all  the  fall  flowers  that  are  shaped  like  field 
daisies  are  asters.  Asters  are  white  or  blue  or  purple,  but 
there  is  also  a  yellow  flower  called  a  golden  aster  that  looks  like 
a  real  aster.  Some  asters  grow  on  tall,  branching  stalks  as  high 
as  your  head,  and  others  are  only  a  few  inches  high.  Some 
have  large  and  showy  blossoms,  and  others  have  flowers  smaller 
than  a  finger  nail ;  but  all  kinds  are  alike  in  that  each  flower, 
like  a  golden-rod  or  dandelion,  is  made  up  of  a  number  of 
florets. 


YIII.     GOLDEN-ROD   GALL 

Material.  —  Golden-rod  galls  brought  by  the  pupils.  They  are  round 
or  spindle-shaped  swellings  on  golden-rod  stalks.  Look  for  them  in  clumps 
of  golden-rod. 

Observation.  —  How  large  is  the  golden-rod  gall  ? 
What  is  its  shaj^e  ?  Has  it  leaves  on  its  side  ?  Has 
it  an  opening  ?     Is  there  anything  in  the  opening  ? 

Split  a  gall  in  two  lengthwise.  How  thick  is  it? 
How  large  is  the  room  inside  ?  Do  yon  find  any 
signs  that  an  insect  has  lived  there  ?  Do  yon  find 
the  insect  itself  ?  Is  it  a  caterpillar,  a  pnpa,  or  a 
full-grown  insect  ? 

Drawing  and  Composition.  —  Describe  the  golden- 
rod  gall  with  pictures  and  with  written  words.  Make 
a  picture  and  a  paragraph  about  the  outside  of  the 
gall,  and  another  picture  and  paragraph  about  its 
inside. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  WORK 

How  a  Gall  is  made.  —  When  the  golden-rod  was  yonng,  an 
insect  pricked  a  hole  in  its  stalk,  and  there  laid  an  egg-  which 
hatched  a  grub  or  caterpillar.  Then  the  stalk  grew  faster  at 
that  point  than  at  any  other,  and  so  formed  a  knob  around  the 
grub.  The  grub  ate  out  the  inside  of  the  knob  for  food,  and  lived 
in  the  room  that  it  made.  ^ 

48 


GOLDEN-ROD   GALL 


49 


If  the  gall  is  a  round  one,  the  insect  inside  is  a  young  fly. 
The  fly  will  probably  remain  in  the  gall  all  winter  and  come 
out  in  the  spring.  Save  some  of  the  galls  in  a  covered  jar 
and  see  what  kind  of  a  fly  comes  out.  Keep  them  in  the 
cellar  where  they  will  not  dry  up  too  much.  If  the  gall  is 
long  and  spindle-shaped,  a  moth  will  probably  go  from  it  in 
the  fall,  leaving  an  empty 
pupa  case  sticking  out 
from  a  hole  in  its  side. 
Was  the  pupa  case  half- 
way out  of  any  of  the 
galls  that  you  found? 

Tufted  Galls,  —  Some- 
times you  may  see  a 
golden-rod  that  grows  a 
dense  mass  of  leaves  like 
a  green  chrysanthemum 
flower.  These  bunches  of 
leaves  are  galls,  and  are 
inhabited  by  the  grubs  of 
small  flies. 

The  Spiny  Rose  Gall.  — 
On  the  twigs  of  wild  rose 
bushes  you  may  some- 
times find  clusters  of  balls 
like  peas,  covered  with 
long,  sharp  spines.  Keep 
some  in  a  jar,  and  you 
will  get  black  flies  from 
them  in  the  spring. 

Other  Galls.  —  On  grape  and  blackberry  vines  galls  often 
form  red,  bulging  knobs.  Inside  of  them  are  small  larvas 
which  become  black  flies  in  the  fall  or  in  the  following  spring. 

On  willow  bushes  you  can  often  find  two  or  three  kinds  of 
galls.     One  kind  looks  like  a  pine  cone. 

OVER.  NAT.   STUD.  4 


Golden-rod  Galls 


IX.    BURDOCK 

Material.  —  Burdock  burs  brought  by  the  pupils. 

Observation.  —  What  is  the  shape  of  a  burdock 
bur?  What  is  its  size?  With  what  is  it  covered? 
About  how  many  hooks  are  there  on  a  bur  ?  Does 
the  point  of  a  hook  turn  inward  or  outward  ?  Pull 
off  one  of  the  hooks.  What  is  the  shape  of  the 
whole  hook  ? 

Cut  a  bur  in  two  lengthwise.  Where  are  the 
seeds  ?  How  many  seeds  are  in  a  bur  ?  How  large 
is  each  seed  ?  Wh^t  is  its  shape  ?  Has  it  any  silk 
or  fluff  like  a  golden-rod  or  dandelion  seed  ?  What 
is  there  about  a  bur  that  helps  the  seeds  to  reach  new 
soil? 

Drawing.  —  Draw  a  bur  cut  in  two  lengthwise  so 
as  to  show  its  hooked  coverings  and  the  seeds  inside. 
Be  sure  to  curve  the  hooks  in  the  right  direction. 
Draw  also  a  stem  to  the  bur,  so  as  to  show  whether 
the  bur  grows  on  the  side  or  on  the  end  of  a  stem. 

Composition.  —  Imagine  some  burdock  burs  to  be 
gatherings  of  ^eed  children  going  out  to  seek  their 
fortunes.  Describe  the  burs.  Tell  how  the  children 
ride  away,  what  dangers  they  pass  through,  and  how 
some  at  last  find  a  good  place  where  they  can  grow. 

60 


BURDOCK 


51 


SUPPLEMENTARY  WORK 

Burdock  Flowers.  —  After  frosts  have  coine  and  most  of  the 
burs  are  dry  and  brown,  you  can  often  find  small  plants  that 
are  still  in  flower.  Examine  a  green  bur.  Where  is  its  flower  ? 
What  is  the  color  of  its  blossom  ?     How  many  florets  has  it  ? 


Burdock  Flowers 


What  is  the  shape  of  a  floret  ?  Find  the  withered  florets  on 
a  ripe  bur.  Compare  the  hooks  on  a  green  bur  with  the  hooks 
on  a  ripe  bur.  On  which  are  the  hooks  turned  outward  the 
most  ? 


52  BURDOCK 

Burdock  Seeds  stealing  Rides.  —  Have  you  seen  burdock  burs 
clinging  to  a  person's  clotlies,  or  to  an  animal's  hair  ?  Give 
a  reason  why  burdocks  are  common  around  houses  and  barns, 
and  are  seldom  seen  in  the  woods  and  meadows.  Burdocks 
are  among  the  few  plants  that  spring  up  on  vacant  lots  in  the 
midst  of  large  cities.     Why  is  this  ? 

Other  Seeds  that  steal  Rides.  —  In  the  fall,  when  you  have 
come  from  a  walk  in  the  fields,  have  you  found  seeds  clinging 
to  your  clothes  ?  Among  them  did  you  find  a  flat  seed  with 
two  barbed  horns  that  held  tightly  to  the  cloth  ?  These  seeds 
are  called  pitchforks,  or  stick-tights.  Notice  on  what  kind  of 
plants  they  grow,  so  that  you  may  keep  away  from  them. 

Another  kind  of  seed  that  will  be  likely  to  get  on  your 
clothes  is  flat  and  rough,  and  is  called  hound' s-tongue.  It  is 
harder  to  brush  off  than  pitchforks,  for  it  clings  flatwise.  The 
clinging  habit  of  the  seeds  is  troublesome  to  us.  How  is  it 
helpful  to  the  plants  ? 

Birds  as  Seed  Carriers. — Birds  aid  in  the  spread  of  plants 
and  trees  by  carrying  their  seeds  away.  Wild  cherries  are 
often  planted  along  fences  in  this  way.  What  other  seeds  do 
you  know  that  are  often  planted  by  birds  ? 

Weed  Seeds  and  Man.  —  Many  of  our  most  common  Aveeds, 
such  as  wild  mustard,  shepherd's  purse,  corn  cockle,  and  white 
daisy  have  been  brought  here  from  Europe.  Some  sprang 
from  seeds  that  were  mixed  with  seed  grain ;  some  came  with 
the  hay  and  bedding  of  animals,  and  some  in  the  packing 
around  goods.  Do  you  know  weeds  that  have  been  brought  to 
your  town  in  any  of  these  ways  ? 

Have  you  seen  clumps  of  lily  of  the  valley,  motherwort, 
tansy,  or  catnip  growing  where  there  is  no  sign  of  a  house  ? 
These  are  all  dooryard  plants,  and  wherever  you  see  them  you 
may  be  pretty  sure  that  a  house  once  stood  near  by.  They 
spread  but  little,  except  when  planted  by  man,  but  once  rooted 
they  grow  in  the  same  place  year  after  year,  long  after  houses 
and  fences  ^nd  ^yen  fruit  trees  have  disappeared. 


X.    NEST   OF   A   PAPER   WASP 

Material. — The  nest  of  a  paper  building  wasp  (hornet),  hung  in  a 
prominent  place  in  the  schoolroom.  Cut  away  one  half  of  the  nest  so  as 
to  show  its  inside.  After  the  leaves  are  off  the  trees  the  nests  can  be  found 
on  low  limbs  of  trees,  and  in  clumps  of  bushes  and  golden-rods.  During 
the  summer  a  hornet's  nest  is  like  a  camp  of  bad-tempered  savages,  but 
in  the  fall  the  whole  hornet  family  move  out  and  leave  the  nest  to  us  if 
we  care  to  take  it. 

Observation.  —  What  is  the  size  of  the  hornet's  nest  ? 
What  is  its  shape  ?  What  is  its  color  ?  Lift  it.  How 
heavy  does  it  feel  ?  Of  what  is  it  made  ?  How  many 
layers  are  in  its  walls  ?  How  thick  is  one  of  its 
layers?     Where  is  its  doorway? 

What  is  the  inside  arrangement  of  the  nest?  How 
many  stories  has  it  ?  Compare  it  with  a  beehive.  Of 
what  is  the  comb  made  ?  How  are  the  combs  held  in 
place  ?  Do  their  cells  stand  upright  or  hang  down- 
ward ?  What  is  the  color  of  the  lining  of  the  cells  ? 
Open  one  of  the  cells  that  are  closed.  What  do  you 
find  inside  ? 

Drawing.  —  Draw  a  picture  of  a  hornet's  nest  as  it 
appears  when  its  front  is  cnt  away.  First,  draw  the 
outside  of  the  nest  with  several  broken  lines  to  show 
its  layers.  Then  draw  the  comb  by  making  the  cells 
in  rows  one  above  another.  Also  show  how  the  combs 
are  joined  together. 

63 


54 


NEST  OF   A  PAPER   WASP 


Composition.  —  Write  a  description  of  the  hornet's 
nest.  Make  a  paragraph  about  the  outer  covering  of 
the  nest,  a  second  paragraph  about  tlie  comb,  and  a 
third  paragraph  about  what  you  find  in  the  comb. 


SUPPLEMENTARY   WORK 

Wasp  Paper.  —  Hornets  make  their  nests  from  wood  which 
they  gnaw  from  weather-beaten  trees  and  buiklings.  They 
chew  the  wood  to  a  pulp,  and  spread  it  out  in  sheets  which  dry 

and    become    paper.      If 


,!aiimemii^^^it^^'js^a. 


you  see  a  hornet  ahght 
on  a  board,  watch  to  see 
what  it  does. 

Young  Wasps.  —  The 
httle  cells  in  the  combs 
of  hornets'  nests  are  not 
filled  with  honey,  but  are 
used  to  hold  baby  lior- 
nets.  The  larvas  that 
hatch  from  the  mother 
hornet's  eggs  are  grubs 
without  legs.  They  hang 
in  the  cells  head  down- 
ward, being  held  in  by  a 
sticky  substance.  There 
they  are  fed  by  the  old 
wasps  on  insects  and 
honey. 
You  may  have  seen  hornets  buzzing  around  your  kitchen  on 

a  hot  summer's  day.     They  were  probably  catching  flies  for 

food. 

When  a  larva  is  fully  grown,  it  spins  a  white  cocoon  around 

the  sides  and  over  the  top  of  its  cell,  and  passes  its  pupal  state 


Part  of  Hornet's  Nest 


NEST   OF   A    PAPER   WASP  55 

tightly  shut  up  inside.  About  a  month  after  the  egg  is  laid 
the  winged  insect  conies  forth  as  a  large  black  wasp  with  bands 
of  white  or  yellow  across  its  body.  The  cell  is  then  used  to 
rear  another  larva. 

What  is  the  thin  white  lining  that  projects  a  little  way  from 
each  empty  cell  ?  See  if  you  can  tear  the  white  lining  as 
easily  as  you  can  tear  the  paper  of  the  nest. 

How  Hornets'  Nests  are  built.  —  Each  hornet's  nest  is  begun 
in  spring  by  a  single  mother  wasp,  and  at  first  is  about  the 
size  of  a  black  walnut.  The  w^asp  children  are  nearly  all 
workers,  with  a  few  drones  and  queens.  Thus  the  nest  of  hor- 
nets is  much  like  a  hive  of  bees.  The  young  all  remain  at 
home  and  helj)  the  mother  hornet  to  care  for  her  other  young. 
As  the  family  grows  the  hornets  make  the  house  larger  and 
larger.  How  large  was  the  largest  hornet's  nest  that  you  have 
seen?  Did  you  ever  find  a  large  hornet's  nest  early  in  sum- 
mer? Why  not?  What  becomes  of  the  empty  nests  in  fall  ? 
In  the  fall,  when  frost  comes,  all  the  wasps  die  except  a  few 
mother  wasps  who  pass  the  winter  in  some  sheltered  spot.  In 
an  empty  nest  you  may  find  a  few  dead  wasps,  which  may  be 
either  old  ones  or  young  ones  too  weak  to  fly  away. 

One  kind  of  wasp  builds  a  paper  comb  for  its  young,  but  puts 
no  covering  over  it.  You  may  often  see  these  combs  hanging 
by  single  stems  from  the  rafters  or  eaves  of  a  barn. 

A  kind  of  wasp  commonly  called  a  yellow  jacket  looks  much 
like  a  honeybee,  and  stings  worse  than  a  hornet.  It  makes  a 
light  brown  nest  much  like  a  hornet's  nest,  but  builds  it  in  a 
hole  in  the  ground  and  makes  the  paper  out  of  rotten  wood. 
If  you  find  a  nest,  mark  the  spot,  and  at  the  beginning  of  cold 
weather  dig  it  up  and  examine  it. 


XL    NEST   OF  A  MUD   WASP 

Material.  — Nests  of  mud  wasps  brought  by  the  pupils.  They  can  be 
found  on  piazza  ceilings,  and  under  the  roofs  of  attics,  barns,  and  out- 
buildings. 

Observation.  —  What  is  the  size  of  the  mud  wasp's 
nest  ?  What  is  its  shape  ?  What  is  its  color  ?  Of 
what  is  it  made  ?  How  many  cells  are  in  it  ?  How 
are  the  cells  arranged  ?     Do  you  find  their  doors  ? 

Break  open  one  of  the  cells.  How  thick  are  its 
walls  ?     How  large  is  the  cell  ?     What  is  its  shape  ? 

Do  you  find  a  young  wasp  in  an  opened  cell  ?  Is 
it  a  larva,  a  pupa,  or  a  winged  wasp  ?  In  the  cells 
you  may  also  find  the  bodies  or  remains  of  insects  on 
which  the  young  wasps  fed.  What  kind  of  insects 
were  they  ? 

Drawing.  —  Draw  a  picture  of  the  mud  wasp's 
nest.  Draw  the  outline  of  the  whole  nest  with  heavy 
lines.  Then  with  lighter  lines  draw  such  parts  of  the 
separate  cells  as  you  can  readily  see,  for  the  cells  do 
not  always  show  plainly  on  the  outside  of  the  nest. 

Composition.  —  Write  a  description  of  the  mud 
wasp's  nest  that  you  examined.  Make  a  paragraph 
about  the  appearance  of  the  whole  nest,  another  para- 
graph about  its  cells,  and  a  third  paragraph  about 

what  you  find  in  the  cells. 

56 


1 


NEST  OF   A   MUD  WASP 


57 


SUPPLEMENTARY  WORK 

What  are  in  Mud  Wasps'  Nests.  —  The  cells  of  a  mud  wasp's 
nest  are  homes  for  baby  wasps.  As  soon  as  a  mother  com- 
pletes a  cell  she  lays  an  egg  in  it,  fills  the  cell  with  spiders, 
and  closes  the  door 
with  a  lump  of  mud. 
A  legless  larva  hatches 
out  and  lives  on  the 
spiders  until  it  is  fully 
grown.  Then  it  lies 
quiet  in  the  pupal  state 
for  a  while,  until  its 
wings  have  grown.  At 
last  it  gnaws  its  way 
out  and  flies  off,  never 
to  return  to  the  nest. 
You  may  have  seen 
wasps  come  into  your 
kitchen  and  fly  around 
as  if  they  vv^ere  looking 
for  something.  If  you  let  them  alone,  they  will  not  sting  you, 
but  will  catch  spiders  to  put  into  their  nests. 

How  Wasps  build  their  Nests.  —  Where  have  you  seen  the 
nests  of  mud  wasps  ?  Were  they  all  of  one  color  ?  Could 
you  tell  where  the  wasps  got  their  mud  ?  You  may  sometimes 
find  an  unused  or  half-finished  cell  on  a  nest.  Give  a  reason 
why  the  cell  is  unfinished.  Notice  if  there  are  any  unused 
balls  of  mud  on  the  next  nest  that  you  see. 

In  warm  weather  wasps  may  often  be  seen  getting  mud 
around  pumps  and  kitchen  drains.  Watch  one  roll  a  ball  of 
mud  with  its  fore  feet,  seize  it  with  its  jaws,  and  fly  away. 
How  long  does  it  take  a  wasp  to  roll  a  lump  as  big  as  it  can 
carry  ?  Notice  what  a  wasp  does  with  its  wings  while  it  is 
working  with  the  mud. 


Mud  Wasp's  Nest 


58 


NEST   OF   A   MUD   WASP 


What  a  Wasp  is  like.  —  Wasps  pass  the  winter  sleeping  in 
sheltered  places.     In  late  fall  or  early  spring  you  may  often 

see  them  on  sunny 
windows  in  the  attic 
or  barn.  Has  a 
wasp  the  same  num- 
ber of  wings  as  a 
house  fly?  Has  it 
the  same  number  of 
legs  ?  Has  its  body 
the  same  divisions  ? 
You  may  know 
the  common  mud- 
building  wasp  by  its 
long  slender  waist. 
Kinds  of  Wasps. 
—  There  are  many 
kinds  of  mud-build- 
ing wasps.  One  kind 
makes  a  nest  like  a 
jug  about  as  large 
as  the  end  of  your 
little  finger.  These 
nests  are  usually 
fastened  to  twigs  of 
trees,  or  to  the  stalks 
of  golden-rods.  In 
each  nest  the  mother 
wasp  lays  a  single  egg  and  then  fills  the  nest  with  live  cater- 
pillars which  will  furnish  food  for  the  grub  that  hatches  from 
the  egg. 

Another  kind  of  wasp  that  builds  on  twigs  and  plant  stems 

makes  a  nest  about  the  size  and  shape  of  a  hen's  egg..    The 

cells  look  like  pencil  holes  drilled  irregularly  through  the  nest. 

Another  kind  of  wasp  makes  long  holes  in  small  sumac  and 


Wasp's  Nest  on  an  Apple  Leaf 


NEST   OF   A  MUD   WASP 


59 


elder  limbs  by  eating  out  the  pith.  Then  it  divides  the  hole 
into  cells  by  cross  walls  of  mud  or  chips,  and  lays  an  egg  in 
each.  Look  for  these  nests  in  dead  sumac  or  elder  twigs. 
Some  of  the  nests  that  you  may  find  may  belong  to  a  kind  of 
bee.  If  the  nest  contains  pol- 
len and  honey  it  is  probably  a 
bee's  nest,  but  if  it  contains 
spiders  and  other  insects  it  is 
a  wasp's  nest. 

Sometimes  you  may  find 
nests  lined  with  leaves  and 
divided  by  leafy  partitions  into 
cells.  These  are  the  nests  of 
leaf-cutting  bees. 

Digger  Wasp.  —  In  the  side- 
walk or  hard  lawn  you  may 
sometimes  find  heaps  of  dirt 
beside  deep  holes  about  the 
size  of  a  little  finger.  These 
holes  are  dug  by  digger  wasps 
to  be  the  homes  for  their  young. 
In  each  hole  a  wasp  will  put 
a  living  cicada  which  it  has 
stung  and  paralyzed.  On  the 
cicada  it  will  lay  an  egg.      The 

wasp  that  hatches  out  will  use  the  cicada  for  food,  and  when 
full  grown  will  dig  its  way  out  of  the  hole  and  fly  away. 
These  are  among  the  largest  of  all  wasps. 


Wasp's  Nest  on  a  Twig 


XII.     BIRD'S   NEST 

Material.  —  The  nest  of  a  Baltimore  oriole  (hangbird)  placed  where 
the  pupils  can  easily  examine  it.  If  an  oriole's  nest  can  not  be  found, 
use  a  vireo's  nest,  or  the  nest  of  some  other  bird. 

Observation. — What  is  the  shape  of  the  nest  that 
you  are  studying  ?  What  is  its  size  ?  What  is  its 
color  ?  To  what  part  of  a  branch  is  it  fastened  ? 
How  is  it  fastened  ? 

Of  what  stuff  is  the  nest  made  ?  What  different 
kinds  of  things  were  used  in  making  it  ?  How 
are  the  pieces  of  stuff  held  together? 

Drawing.  —  Draw  a  picture  of  the  nest.  First, 
draw  the  limb  and  the  outline  of  the  nest.  Then 
draw  short  crooked  lines  all  over  the  nest  to  show 
the  kind  of  stuff  of  which  it  is  made.  Make  the 
lines  liditer  toward  the  middle  of  the  nest  to  show 
its  rounded  shape. 

Composition.  —  Suppose  yourself  to  be  a  baby  bird. 
Write  a  paragraph  describing  your  nest,  another  para- 
graph describing  the  stuff  of  which  it  is  made,  and  a 
third  paragraph  telling  why  you  should  think  your 
cradle  to  be  the  best  one  in  the  world. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  WORK 

Orioles.  —  Among  the  common  birds  around  our  homes  none 
are  more  beautiful,  or  sing  sweeter  songs,  or  help  man  more 

60 


BIRD'S  NEST 


61 


than  Baltimore  orioles.  While  the  trees  are  in  blossom  they 
dress  themselves  in  the  brightest  gold  and  fill  the  air  with 
music  as  they  hunt  among  the  opening  buds  for  caterpillars 
and  other  enemies  of  the  trees.  During  the  labor  of  weaving 
their  nests  and  rearing  their  young  they  neglect  their  dress 
and  song,  and  by  the  end  of  July  their  feathers  are  a  rusty 
brown  and  their  voices  are  silent.  But  all  through  the  sum- 
mer they  pay  the  farmer 
good  rent  for  the  use  of 
his  trees,  for  they  are 
fond  of  hairy  caterpil- 
lars, and  eat  great  num- 
bers of  the  kind  that 
spin  webs  and  strip  the 
leaves  from  orchard 
trees.  Have  you  seen 
a  web  nest  torn  to  pieces 
and  filled  with  dead  cat- 
erpillars ?  An  oriole 
had  probably  been  there 
for  breakfast.  When 
food  is  plentiful  it  will 
often  suck  the  juices 
from  caterpillars  and 
leave  their  skins.  Cuck- 
oos also  are  fond  of 
these  web  worms. 

Oriole's  Nest.  —  How 
many  orioles'  nests  can  you  see  on  your  way  to  school  ?  In 
what  part  of  a  tree  is  an  oriole's  nest  usually  found  ?  How  is 
it  protected  from  thieves  of  all  kinds  ?  Can  you  see  an  oriole's 
nest  easily  in  summer  ?  Is  it  of  any  advantage  to  the  bird  that 
this  is  so  ?  Can  you  see  the  nest  easily  in  winter  ?  Where  do 
orioles  go  in  winter  ?  When  they  return  in  spring,  do  they 
use  their  old  nests  ?    Watch  an  old  nest  and  see  if  it  is  used. 


Oriole's  Nest 


62 


BIRD'S   NEST 


ViREo's  Nest 


Vireo's  Nest.  —  A  number  of  different  kinds  of  yellow  or 
olive  green  birds  are  commonly  called  yellow  birds.  Many  of 
them  build  soft,  downy  nests  in  the  forks  of  the  smallest  limbs 
on  shade  trees  and  swamp  bushes.  One  kind,  the  vireo,  builds 
a  hanging  nest  that  is  shaped  like  a  teacup.  It  often  covers 
the  outside  of  the  nest  with  spiders'  webs.  What  is  the  dif- 
ference between  a  vireo's  nest  and  an  oriole's  nest  ? 

Nest  of  a  Chipping  Sparrow.  —  Chipping  sparrows  often  build 
their  nests  in  apple  trees  and  in  arbors  by  our  doors.  They 
make  the  nests  out  of  grass  roots,  and  line  them  with  horse 
hair.  Are  the  nests  woven  as  firmly  as  an  oriole's  nest  ?  ^XQ 
they  built  in  as  safe  places  ? 

A  Robin's  Nest. — A  robin  builds  its  nest  out  of  large  spears 
of  grass  and  lines  it  first  with  mud  and  then  with  soft  grass. 
How  does  the  robin  make  the  inside  of  the  nest  smooth  before 
the  soft  grass  is  added  ?  You  can  find  out  by  watching  a  robin 
build  a  nest  in  spring.  In  what  part  of  a  tree  does  a  robin 
build  its  nest  ?  Look  at  several  robins'  nests  and  see  if  they 
.  are  built  equally  well. 

Have  you  ever  heard  the  robins  sing  at  daybreak  ?  They 
are  among  the  first  of  the  birds  to  waken,  and  they  sing  in  a 
loud  chorus  as  if  to  call  the  rest. 


BIRD'S  NEST  63 

Nest  of  the  English  Sparrow.  —  Where  have  yon  seen  English 
sparrows  building  their  nests  ?  Of  what  were  they  making 
them  ?  How  large  are  their  nests  ?  Have  you  seen  one  made 
out  of  an  old' robin's  nest?  At  what  time  of  the  year  do  Eng- 
lish sparrows  build  their  nests  ?  Have  you  seen  them  building 
in  winter  ?     Do  they  lay  eggs  in  winter  ? 

A  Bird  Census.  —  In  winter  is  the  best  time  to  begin  the 
study  of  birds'  nests.  Then  the  leaves  are  off  the  trees,  and 
the  nests  can  easily  be  found.  Then,  too,  the  birds  are  through 
with  them,  and  no  harm  is  done  if  we  take  them. 

What  kind  of  nests  can  you  see  along  your  street?  By 
counting  the  nests  you  can  get  some  idea  how  many  birds 
lived  near  you  daring  the  last  summer. 

On  your  way  to  school  count  the  birds'  nests  that  you  find. 
What  kind  of  nest  do  you  see  the  most  often  ?  How  many 
kinds  do  you  find?  How  many  birds  do  you  suppose  were 
raised  in  them  ?  Besides  the  nests  that  you  see,  there  are 
probably  other  nests  hidden  in  hollow  trees  and  in  barns  and 
outbuildings. 

Protection  for  Birds.  —  Birds  protect  our  fruit  and  grain  from 
insects,  and  enliven  us  w^th  their  songs.  What  have  you  done 
to  help  them  ?  Did  you  ever  put  pieces  of  hair  and  string 
where  they  could  get  them  for  their  nests  ?  Have  you  made 
houses  for  them  ?  Have  you  put  water  where  they  can  drink 
and  bathe  ?  Have  you  given  them  food  and  water  in  winter  ? 
Have  you  helped  to  preserve  the  bushes  where  they  nest,  and 
the  wild  berries  and  seeds  on  which  they  feed  ?  Have  you 
always  tried  to  be  friendly  wdth  the  birds  so  that  they  would 
be  glad  to  live  near  you  ? 


XIII.     TEEE   TRUNK 

Material.  —  Sticks  of  oak,  chestnut,  pine,  or  other  stove  wood  pre- 
pared by  some  of  the  boys.  Leave  the  bark  on.  Cut  the  wood  in  short 
lengths,  split  them  in  half,  and  smooth  the  ends  and  sides  to  show  the 
grain  of  the  wood.  A  little  oil  or  varnish  will  bring  out  the  grain  marks 
more  clearly. 

Observation.  —  What  is  the  name  of  the  wood 
that  you  are  studying?  What  is  the  color  of  the 
wood  ?  What  is  the  color  of  the  circles  on  the  end 
of  the  stick  ?  How  many  circles  are  there  ?  How 
are  they  arranged  ?  How  far  apart  are  they  ?  Is 
the  wood  between  the  circles  solid,  or  does  it  contain 
fine  holes  ?  In  what  direction  do  the  holes  run  ? 
Each  circle  marks  a  year's  growth  of  wood.  How 
old  is  the  stick  ? 

Are  there  any  lines  on  the  split  side  of  the  stick  ? 
Which  way  do  they  run?  Have  they  anything  to 
do  with  the  circles  on  the  end  of  the  stick  ? 

How  thick  is  the  bark  on  the  wood  ?  Is  it  smooth 
or  rough  ?  Does  the  outer  part  peel  off  easily  ?  How 
closely  is  the  bark  fastened  to  the  wood  ? 

Drawing.  —  Draw  a  picture  of  the  end  of  the  stick 
of  wood.  Show  the  bark  and  the  marks  on  the 
wood. 

64 


TREE   TRUNK 


65 


Composition.  —  Write  a  description  of  the  stick  of 
wood.  In  the  first  paragraph  tell  about  the  circles 
on  the  end  of  the  stick,  in  the  second  paragraph  about 
the  markings  on  its  side,  and  in  the  third  paragraph 
about  the  bark. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  WORK 

How  a  Tree  grows.  —  Have  you  seen  a  tree  growing  with  its 
center  rotten  and  hollow  ?  In  growing,  does  a  tree  need  to  use 
the  center  of  its  trunk  ? 


End  of  a  Stick  of  Black  Oak 

Have  you  seen  great  flakes  of  bark  peeling  off  from  a  grow- 
ing tree  ?  In  order  to  grow  does  a  tree  need  to  use  the  outer 
part  of  its  bark  ? 

All  new  growth  goes  on  where  the  bark  and  wood  join. 
Each  year  the  tree  forms  a  new  layer  of  wood  over  all  the  old 

OVER.    NAT.    STUD.  —  5 


6Q 


TREE   TRUNK 


wood,  and  lines  the  old  bark  with  a  new  layer  of  bark.  The 
wood  that  grows  in  the  spring  is  lighter  in  color  and  softer 
than  that  grown  later  in  the  season.     So  each  year's  growth 

makes  a  double  ring,  —  a 

thick,  light-colored  part 
and  a  thinner  and  darker 
part.  By  counting  the 
rings  you  can  tell  the  age 
of  the  tree. 

Which  part  of  the 
wood  has  the  larger  pores, 
that  grown  early  or  that 
grown  late  in  the  season  ? 
When  the  inner  part 
of  the  ring  of  bark  grows 
larger,  what  happens  to 
the  outer  part  ?  Why 
is  old  bark  rough  and 
cracked  on  its  outside  ? 
Why  is  bark  on  young 
branches  smoother  than 
bark  on  older  ones  ? 

Where   Sap  flows  in  a 

Tree.  —  Sap  is  the  blood 

of   a    tree    and   contains 

everything  that   changes 

into    wood,    leaves,    and 

bark.       From     the     soil 

through     the     roots    the 

plant    gets    some    of    its 

water,  and  also  its  ashes, 

or  what  is  left  after  wood 

is  burned.     From  the  air,  through  the  leaves,  the  sap  gets  its 

charcoal  or  carbon.      When  wood  is  burned,  the  most  of  the 

carbon  passes  back  to  the  air. 


Apple  Twigs  split  to  show  course  of  Sap 


TREE   TRUNK  67 

All  through  the  summer  the  sap  passes  back  and  forth  be- 
tween the  roots  and  leaves.  In  going  toward  the  leaves  it 
passes  through  the  pores,  or  open  tubes  in  the  wood.  Did  you 
see  these  pores  in  the  specimen  of  wood  that  you  studied? 
Wood  is  mostly  bundles  of  thick-walled  tubes,  but  it  often 
takes  sharp  eyes  to  see  their  openings. 

Does  sap  go  up  through  all  the  wood  ?  Find  out  by  putting 
the  cut  end  of  an  apple  twig  in  water  colored  with  ink.  Let  it 
stand  for  a  day  or  two.  Then  split  it  open  lengthwise  and  see 
in  what  part  of  the  wood  the  ink  has  risen. 

In  going  from  the  leaves  toward  the  roots  sap  passes 
through  the  inner  parts  of  the  bark. 

How  a  Tree  repairs  its  Wounds.  —  Look  at  the  place  where 
a  limb  has  been  sawed  from  a  tree.  Which  part  of  the  wound 
is  the  bark  covering  the  more  rapidly,  the  upper  or  the  lower? 

You  may  have  seen  bark  trying  to  cover  the  stump  of  a  limb 
that  was  broken  off  at  some  distance  from  the  trunk.  Often 
the  wood  decays  before  the  bark  can  cover  it,  and  then  the 
whole  inside  of  the  trunk  is  in  danger  of  becoming  rotten.  In 
pruning  a  tree,  always  saw  off  a  limb  with  a  smooth  cut  close 
to  the  trunk. 

Have  you  seen  a  swelling  on  a  tree  where  a  tight  band  has 
been  put  around  it  ?  Is  the  swelling  above  or  below  the  band  ? 
The  sap  in  the  bark  can  not  readily  flow  past  the  band.  Thus 
the  wood  at  the  band  holds  back  some  of  the  food  belonging 
to  the  other  parts  of  the  tree,  and  so  that  place  grows  more 
rapidly  than  the  rest  of  the  trunk. 

Sap  and  Heart  Wood.  —  After  a  few  years  the  tubes  in  the 
wood  of  a  tree  become  filled  up  so  that  the  older  wood  is 
firmer  and  stronger  than  the  young  wood.  In  a  large  tree  the 
center  of  the  trunk  is  darker  in  color,  and  harder  than  the 
outer  part.  The  center  is  called  heart  wood,  and  makes  better 
lumber  than  the  outer  or  sap  wood. 

Grain  Marks  on  Wood.  —  In  some  kinds  of  wood  the  marks 
made  by  each  year's  growth  show  more  plainly  than  they  do 


68  TREE   TRUNK 

in  other  woods.  When  wood  is  sawed  the  circles  are  cut  across 
and  appear  as  grain  marks  on  the  boards.  In  order  to  show 
the  grain  marks,  wood  used  for  furniture,  ceilings,  and  floors 
is  often  oiled  or  polished  instead  of  being  painted. 

Does  the  wood  on  your  desk  show  any  grain  marks  ?  Are 
there  any  grain  marks  on  the  floor  or  on  the  walls  of  the  school- 
room ?  By  these  marks  you  can  tell  what  kind  of  wood  you 
have.  Of  what  wood  is  your  desk  made  ?  How  many  kinds 
of  wood  can  you  see  in  the  schoolroom  ? 

Split  a  knotty  stick  of  wood  lengthwise  through  a  knot. 
Notice  how  the  grain  marks  on  the  trunk  curve  and  run  up 
the  branch.  Why  is  this  ?  Has  the  wood  from  a  small  branch 
layers  and  grain  marks  like  wood  from  the  trunk  of  a  tree? 

What  are  the  knots  in  a  board  ? 

Borers.  —  In  the  middle  of  sticks  of  firewood  there  are  often 
tunnels  about  the  size  of  a  leadpencil,  or  smaller.  These  tun- 
nels are  usually  made  by  white,  black-headed  grubs  or  borers. 
The  borers  gnaw  tunnels  through  the  w^ood  and  use  some  of 
the  chips  for  food.  When  full  grown  they  change  to  winged 
insects,  chiefly  beetles.  These  insects  lay  eggs  which  hatch 
out  the  boring  grubs. 

Borers  can  usually  be  found  in  decaying  limbs,  but  many 
kinds  live  in  growing  trees  and  spoil  the  wood  with  their 
tunnels.  Look  for  their  tunnels  in  the  sawed  locust  posts  of  a 
fence.  (See  page  45.)  Borers  often  do  great  damage  to  fruit 
trees.  Their  tunnels  are  usually  near  the  ground  and  can  be 
found  by  means  of  the  sawdust  pushed  out  by  the  borers. 
Almost  the  only  way  to  kill  them  is  by  running  a  wire  up 
the  tunnels. 


XIY.     COCOONS 

Material.  —  Cocoons,  especially  those  of  the  Cecropia,  Polyphemus, 
and  Promethea  moths.  Cut  one  open,  and  place  it  where  all  the  class  can 
examine  it.  Look  for  cocoons  on  shrubs,  under  the  bark  of  trees,  and  in 
protected  places  on  fences  and  houses. 

Observation.  —  To  what  is  the  cocoon  that  you  are 
studying  fastened  ?  What  is  its  size  ?  What  is  its 
shape  ?  What  is  its  color  ?  Is  it  firm  or  soft  ?  Are 
its  threads  tightly  or  loosely  woven  ?  Was  there  any- 
thing besides  silk  used  in  making  the  cocoon  ? 

Examine  a  cocoon  that  has  been  cut  open.  How 
thick  are  its  sides  ?  In  how  many  layers  are  its 
sides  made  ?  How  does  the  inner  surface  of  the 
cocoon  feel  to  the  touch  ? 

In  the  cocoon  that  was  cut  open,  what  is  the  size 
of  the  pupa  ?  What  is  its  color  ?  What  is  its  shape  ? 
How  can  you  tell  the  head  of  its  body  from  the 
tail  ? 

Drawing.  —  Drav/  a  picture  of  the  cocoon.  If 
there  are  any  fluffy  threads  on  the  cocoon,  draw  them 
with  a  sharp  pencil  in  light  lines. 

Composition.  —  Write  a  description  of  the  cocoon. 
Make  the  paragraphs  on  the  subjects  called  forth  by 
tlie  observation  questions. 

69 


70 


COCOONS 


SUPPLEMENTARY  WORK 

How  to  keep  Cocoons.  —  Keep  the  cocoons  so  that  you  can 
see  what  kind  of  moths  come  from  them.  The  best  way  is  to 
leave  them  where  you  found  them  until  spring.  If  you  bring 
them  home,  remember  that  they  are  used  to  cold  weather  and 
to  rain.  So  put  them  in  a  cool  place,  and  wet  them  once  a 
month.  When  warm  weather  comes  again,  put  them  .in  a  box 
with  mosquito  netting  tacked  over  the  top,  and  watch  for  the 
moths  to  appear. 

"What  comes  from  Cocoons.  —  From  the  large,  firm  cocoons 
that  3'ou  will  be  likely  to  get  there  will  probably  come  some 

one  of  four  kinds  of 
large  moths.  If  a 
cocoon  is  large  in  the 
middle,  and  tapers  to 
each  end  like  a  spin- 
dle, there  will  come 
a  very  large,  reddish 
gray  moth,  the  ce- 
cropia. 

If    the    cocoon    is 

nearly  egg-shaped,  the 

moth    will     probably 

be  either  a  yellowish 

gray  one,  the  polyphemus,  or  a  light  green  one  with  a  long 

tail  on  each  hind  wing,  the  hma  moth. 

If  the  cocoon  is  like  a  long  bag,  and  is  covered  with  a  folded 
leaf,  there  will  probably  appear  a  smaller  black  or  reddish  moth, 
the  2:>romethea.  If  a  naked  twig  bears  something  that  looks  like 
a  single  folded  leaf,  look  to  see  if  it  is  a  cocoon.  Notice  how 
these  cocoons  are  fastened  to  the  twigs. 

The  fuzzy  caterpillars  that  spin  webs  in  the  fall  and  eat  the 
leaves  from  shade  trees  make  cocoons  out  of  their  own  hair 
and  a  little  loosely  woven  silk.     The  cocoons  are  small  in  size. 


Cecropia  Moth  and  Cocoon 


COCOONS 


71 


and  are  made  under  loose  bark  and  in  corners  of  fences  and 
buildings.  In  the  spring  small  white  or  spotted  moths  come 
from  them. 

Keep  any  other  kind  of  cocoons  that  you  find  and  see  wh^at 
moths  come  from  them.     Also  collect  butterfly  papas  and  keep 
them  in  the  same  way  that  you 
keep  the  cocoons. 

Ways  of  passing  the  Winter.  — 
In  the  fall  most  insects  die,  but 
the  next  summer  there  are  as 
many  as  ever.  From  what  does 
each  year's  insect  host  spring  ? 

What  starts  a  new  brood  of 
house  flies  ?  What  starts  a  new 
brood  of  mosquitoes  ?  What 
starts  a  new  brood  of  wasps  ? 
What  starts  a  new  brood  of  bees  ? 
What  starts  a  new  brood  of  ants  ? 

Almost  the  first  butterfly  that 
you  see  in  spring  is  one  that  has 
lived  through  the  winter.  It  is 
black,  with  yellow  bordered  wings; 
it  is  called  the  mourning  cloak 
butterfly. 

Tussock  Moth.  —  Among  some 
kinds  of  insects  none  at  all  live 
through  the  winter,  but  the  next 
year's  brood  is  hatched  from  eggs 
insects  die  in  the  fall. 

On  the  trunks  and  smaller  limbs  of  elms  and  otlier  trees 
from  fall  to  spring  you  may  often  find  small  white  or  ash- 
colored  cocoons  with  a  bunch  of  eggs  on  each.  These  are  the 
cocoons  of  the  tussock  moth.  The  moth  comes  out  in  the  fall 
and  lays  her  eggs  on  the  cocoon,  where  they  remain  all  winter 
and  hatch  out  in  the  spring.     The  caterpillar  is  white  and 


Tlssock  Moth  akd  Cucuon 


that   are  laid  before  the 


72  COCOONS 

hairy,  with  bald  patches  of  red  on  its  back,  and  with  long  pen- 
cils of  hair  at  each  end  of  its  body.  These  caterpillars  often 
do  great  damage  to  shade  and  fruit  trees  by  eating  their  leaves. 
The  trees  are  most  easily  protected  from  them  by  brushing  the 
cocoons  from  the  limbs  and  burning  them  before  the  eggs 
hatch. 

Woolly  Bear  Caterpillars.  —  A  few  kinds  of  caterpillars  do 
not  change  to  pupas  in  the  fall,  but  curl  themselves  up  in  some 
protected  spot  for  the  winter  and  undergo  their  changes  in  the 
next  spring.  Have  you  seen  a  brown-haired  caterpillar  hurry- 
ing over  the  frozen  ground  or  snow  ?  This  is  the  woolly  hear 
caterj)illar.  It  will  live  through  the  winter,  and  change  to 
a  gray  moth  in  the  spring. 

Spider  Nests.  —  Sometimes  you  may  find  what  you  suppose 
is  a  cocoon,  and  get  from  it  a  great  nuinber  of  young  spiders 
instead  of  a  moth.  Some  spider  nests  look  like  cocoons,  but 
they  are  usually  made  of  softer  and  finer  silk  than  cocoons,  and 
the  eggs  can  often  be  seen  inside. 

Silkworms.  —  The  silk  that  is  spun  and  woven  into  cloth 
is  made  from  the  cocoon  of  the  silkworm.  The  caterpillars 
are  kept  in  boxes  and  fed  on  mulberry  leaves.  Each  cocoon  is 
made  of  a  single  thread  that  can  be  easily  unwound.  The  silk 
from  the  cocoon  of  any  other  kind  of  a  caterpillar  might  be 
used  to  make  cloth  if  it  could  be  unwound. 


>,m 


XY.     ICE 

Material.  —  When  the  weather  is  freezing  cold,  place  some  cups  and 
bottles  of  water  outside  of  a  window  on  the  sill.  Tip  them  frequently  so 
as  to  see  the  first  ice  that  forms. 

Observation.  —  Look  at  tlie  freezing  cup  of  water. 
On  what  part  of  the  surface  does  the  first  ice  form  ? 
How  many  pieces  of  ice  form  at  one  time  ?  What  is 
the  size  of  the  first  bits  of  ice  that  you  see  ?  What 
is  their  shape  ?     Is  the  ice  tlie  same  in  all  the  cups  ? 

Just  before  the  cup  is  frozen  over  pour  off  the 
water.  Do  you  find  any  particles  of  ice  on  the  sides 
of  the  first  bits  of  ice  that  formed  ?  Is  the  under  sur- 
face of  the  ice  smooth  ?  What  do  you  find  on  the 
under  surface  ?  Is  the  upper  surface  of  the  ice  per- 
fectly level,  or  does  it  show  tiny  ridges  ?  How  are 
the  ridges  made  ? 

Look  at  the  freezing  bottle  of  water.  Where 
does  the  first  ice  appear  in  the  bottle  ?  What  is 
the  shape  of  the  ice  ?  How  far  into  the  water  do 
the  first  pieces  of  ice  reach  ? 

Drawing.  —  Draw  a  picture  of  the  first  particles  of 

ice  that  you  saw  on  the  freezing  cup  of  water.    Draw 

a  picture  of  the  first  ice  that  formed  in  the  bottle  of 

water. 

73 


74 


ICE 


Composition.  —  Write  a  composition  telling  bow 
water  freezes  and  liow  the  ice  looks.  In  the  first 
paragraph  describe  the  bits  of  ice  that  first  form  in 
the  cup,  in  the  second  paragraph  describe  the  ice 
when  it  has  become  a  sheet,  and  in  the  third  para- 

g    graph  tell  how  the  water  froze 
in  the  bottle. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  WORK 

Ice  Needles.  —  In  a  pond  ice  forms 
in  the  same  way  as  it  does  in  a  cup 
or  bottle.  At  first  it  is  in  scattered 
needles,  but  when  a  great  number 
of  needles  have  formed,  the  ice  is 
in  one  sheet,  or  block.  Look  at  a 
thin  scum  of  ice  on  some  water  just 
before  the  sheet  is  complete.  Are 
the  openings  between  the  needles 
round,  or  long  and  narrow?  Are 
the  edges  of  the  openings  smooth, 
or  are  they  like  saw  teeth  ?  What 
makes  the  saw  teeth?  Look  for 
needles  and  combs  of  ice  on  the 
sides  and  bottom  of  a  pail  of  freez- 
ing water. 

Notice  the  frost  on  a  window  on 
a  very  cold  day.  Do  you  see  any 
ice  needles  there  ?  The  needles  are 
often  arranged  in  beautiful  shapes. 
What  ice  forms  have  you  seen  ?  The  ice  is  made  from  the 
steam  or  watery  vapor  in  the  air.  Why  are  kitchen  windows 
often  covered  with  ice  when  the  windows  of  the  sitting  room 
have  little  ? 


Ice  Needles  in  a  Bottle 
OF  Water 


ICE 


75 


Under  Side  of  Newly  Formed  Ice 


Put  a  wet  board  where  the  water  on  it  will  freeze.  Does  the 
ice  form  an  even  coating,  or  is  some  of  the  ice  in  the  form  of 
needles  ?  Are  any  of  the 
needles  arranged  in  stars  or 
rosettes  ? 

When  it  clears  off  cold 
after  a  fog  or  light  rain, 
you  may  often  see  ice  fig- 
ures on  a  stone  sidewalk. 

Bubbles  in  Ice.  —  Have 
you  seen  lines  of  bubbles 
in  ice  ?  Are  they  criss- 
crossed in  every  direction, 
or  in  straight  lines  side  by 
side  ?  Do  they  run  length- 
wise of  the  ice,  or  up  and 
down  ?  The  bubbles  are 
made  by  the  air  that  was  dissolved  in  the  water.  In  frozen 
water  the  air  is  driven  from  the  water  and  held  between  the 
needles  of  ice.  In  which  direction  can  you  split  ice  the  more 
readily,  across  the  lines  of  bubbles  or  lengthwise  of  them  ? 

After  a  warm  rain  melting  may  take  place  around  each  bub- 
ble until  the  ice  is  full  of  holes,  and  readily  crumbles  to  needles. 
Notice  this  on  a  skating  pond  after  a  thaw. 

Will  ice  bend  ?  How  thick  must  ice  on  a  pond  be  to  bear  a 
man? 

Why  Ice  bursts  Bottles. — When  water  freezes,  it  swells  so 
that  ten  quarts  of  water  become  eleven  quarts  of  ice.  Thus 
ice  is  lighter  than  water,  and  so  it  floats.  Why  does  not  a 
pond  freeze  solid  ? 

Place  a  bottle  of  water  outside  of  the  window  where  it  will 
freeze  solid.  Does  the  bottle  break  ?  Does  the  ice  rise  up  in 
the  center  and  form  a  hump  ?     What  makes  it  do  so  ? 

Icicles.  —  In  the  afternoon  when  it  becomes  cold  after  snow 
has  been  melting  all  day  on  a  roof,  the  water  dripping  from 


76 


ICE 


the  eaves  often  freezes  in  long  spears.  How  can  it  be  warm 
enough  to  melt  the  snow  on  the  roof,  and  at  the  same  time  be 
cold  enough  to  freeze  the  water  at  the  edge  of  the  roof  ?  How 
large  was  the  largest  icicle  that  you  have  seen  ? 


Frost  ox  Windowpane 


Caddis  Worms. — When  you  are  out  skating,  look  through 
the  ice  into  the  water  below.  What  kinds  of  grass  do  you  see  ? 
What  kinds  of  fish  are  there  ?  Do  you  see  any  turtles  ?  As 
you  look  through  the  ice  do  you  see  what  look  like  rough 
sticks  about  the  size  of  the  end  of  your  little  finger  moving 


ICE 


slowly   among   the   grasses?     These  are  cases  which   caddis 
worms  build  as  covers  for  their  bodies,  and  in  which  they  live. 


Ice  on  a  Sidewalk 


You  may  often  see  a  head  and  legs  sticking  out  of  the  end  of 
each  case.     The  worms  finally  change  to  winged  insects. 


XVI.    SNOWFLAKE 

Material.  —  Give  this  lesson  during  a  cold  snowstorm  when  the  flakes 
are  small  and  uniform  in  shape.  Allow  the  pupils  a  short  recess  in  order 
to  examine  the  flakes  out  of  doors,  or  in  a  freezing  cold  room  where  the 
snow  will  not  melt.  Use  a  magnifying  glass  if  possible.  Have  the  pupils 
take  pencil  and  paper  and  make  rough  sketches  of  the  flakes  while  they 
are  observing  them.  Let  them  do  their  writing  and  their  careful  drawing 
on  returning  to  the  scli,oolroom. 

Observation.  —  How  large  are  the  snowflakes  that 
you  observe  ?  Are  they  all  much  alike  ?  Are  any 
shaped  like  stars  ?  Hoav  many  points  have  the  per- 
fect stars  ?  Do  all  the  stars  look  alike  ?  Are  their 
rays  smooth,  or  are  they  covered  with  frost  work  ? 

Do  any  of  the  stars  show  signs  of  having  melted  ? 
What  part  of  a  star  melts  first  ?  In  which  are  the 
stars  the  more  perfect,  in  the  large  or  in  the  small 
flakes  ? 

Are  any  of  the  flakes  shaped  like  wheels?  How 
many  rays  or  spokes  has  each  wheel  ? 

What  other  shapes  of  flakes  do  you  find  ? 

Drawing  and  Composition.  —  Write  a  composition 
about  the  snowstorm  that  you  watched.  Tell  about 
the  weather,  the  shape  of  the  flakes,  how  the  flakes 
came  down,  and  how  things  looked  under  the  snow. 
Illustrate  your  work  with  a  picture  of  a  single  snow- 

78 


SNOWFLAKE 


79 


flake,  and  with  a  drawing  showing  how  some  fence, 
or  tree,  or  building  looked  under  the  snow. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  WORK 

How  Snowflakes  get  their  Shape.  —  Snow  is  made  up  of  ice 
crystals.     The  ice  comes  from  water  that  has  frozen  in  the 


Snowflakes  (Magnified) 

clouds.     Each  flake  starts  with  six  needles  that  are  arranged 

like  a  six-pointed  star.     Then  smaller  needles  branch  out  from 

the  sides  of  the  first  needles. 

If  the  cross  needles  fill  all  the 

space  between  the  points,  the 

star  becomes  a  six-sided  wheel. 

Afterward    tiny  needles   may 

form  all  over  the  star,  making 

it  a   most  beautiful  object  to 

look  at.     Not  every  flake  will 

be  a  perfect  wheel  or  star,  for 

many  are  broken  by  the  wind. 

During  the  course  of  the 
winter  see  how  many  shapes 
of  flakes  you  can  find. 

If  the  air  is  warm,  some  of 
the  points  of  the  stars  may  melt,  and  then  the  flakes  stick 


f 


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4 


Road  in  a  Snowstorm 


80 


SNOWFLAKE 


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Road  after  a  Snowstorm 


together  to  form  large  ones.     So  in  large  flakes  you  can  make 

out  no  regular  form.     You  will  usually  find  the  most  perfect 

flakes   at  the  beginning   of  a 
cold  storm.     Why  is  this  ? 

Snow  Writings.  —  Sometimes 
animals  and  birds  leave  writ- 
ings in  the  snow.  If  you  find 
their  tracks,  see  how  much 
they  tell  you  about  the  creature 
that  made  them. 

What  tracks  did  you  find 
on  your  way  to  school  ?  Was 
the  trackmaker  going  fast  or 
slow  ?  Was  it  walking,  trot- 
ting,   galloping,    or   hopping  ? 

What   is   the  difference  between   a   dog's   track   and  a  cat's 

track  ?      In  which  do  you  see  the   prints   of   the  toenails  ? 
At  each   leap    a    rabbit 

carries   its    hind    legs  out- 
side of,  and  ahead   of  its 

fore    legs.       So    the    two 

prints  of  its  hind  legs  are 

in  front,  and  a  little  dis- 
tance apart,  while  behind 

them  are  the  tracks  of  its 

fore  legs  near  together. 
Make    a  dog    rim  over 

the   snow.      At   each   leap 

does    it  put  its   hind   feet 

between    its    fore    feet    or 

outside  of  them  ?     Do  its 

hind  feet  strike  the  ground 

behind  or  in  front  of  the 

tracks  of  its  fore  feet  ? 
Look  at  the  tracks  of  a 

galloping  horse.     Are  the  tracks  arranged  like  a  dog's  tracks  ? 


Rabbit  Tracks 


SNOWFLAKE 


81 


Snowbirds.  —  What  birds  have  you  seen  near  the  house  after 
a  snowstorm  ?  Hang  a  piece  of  suet  in  a  tree  for  the  birds 
to  eat.  AVhat  birds  do  you  see  eating  it  ?  Scatter  some  crumbs 
on  the  snow.  What 
birds  come  for  them  ? 
Among  our  winter 
visitors  is  a  small 
slate  -  colored  bird 
with  a  light  gray 
breast,  —  the  junco, 
or  snowbird.  Another 
is  a  small  gray  and 
white  bird  with  a 
black  hood  on  its 
head,  —  the  chickadee. 
Both  of  these  birds 
and  many  more  will 
be  likely  to  come  to 
your  door  after  a 
snowstorm  if  you 
coax  them  with  food. 
Do  not  forget  to  give 
them  drink  also. 

Have  you  seen  birds  eating  the  seeds  on  weed  stalks  that 
stand  up  above  the  snow  ?  On  what  kinds  of  weeds  were  they 
feeding  ?  Have  you  seen  birds  eating  the  seeds  of  golden-rod 
or  birch  ?     (See  p.  46.) 

What  birds  spend  the  winter  with  you  ?  Make  a  list  of  all 
that  you  can  see.  What  birds  do  you  see  in  winter  that  you 
do  not  see  in  summer  ? 


Mouse  Tracks 


OVER.     NAT.     STUD.  6 


XYII.     FROST 

Material.  —  Have  the  pupils  bring  pieces  of  board  or  other  things  cov- 
ered with  frost.  Meet  tlie  pupils  out  of  doors  before  school,  and  call  their 
attention  to  the  forms  of  frost  on  the  shady  side  of  the  schoolhouse.  Use 
a  magnifying  glass  if  possible.  While  the  pupils  are  looking  recall  to  them 
how  water  freezes  and  how  snowflakes  look. 

Observation.  —  On  what  do  you  find  frost?  Is 
there  any  on  the  bare  ground  ?  On  what  does  it 
show  the  most  plainly  ?  How  does  the  frost  look  at 
a  distance  ? 

Is  the  frost  in  a  white  coating  like  paint,  in  grains 
like  flour,  in  needles  like  ice,  or  in  stars  and  wheels 
like  snow  ?  Look  for  flat  particles  of  frost.  How 
many  straight  sides  has  one  of  the  particles  ?  Do 
you  find  any  frost  stars,  any  rosettes  or  other 
figures  ? 

Do  the  frost  particles  stand  on  end  or  lie  flat  on 
their  sides  ?  What  is  the  shape  of  the  particles  that 
glitter  in  the  sunlight  ?  Does  frost  on  the  grass  glit- 
ter as  much  as  frost  on  a  board  or  fence  ?  Do  you 
find  a  reason  for  this  ? 

Drawing  and  Composition.  —  Write  a  description  of 
the  frost  that  you  observed.  Illustrate  your  work 
with  pictures  of  some  of  the  frost  shapes  that  you 
saw, 

83 


84  FROST 


SUPPLEMENTARY  WORK 

What  Frost  is.  —  Frost  is  not  frozen  dewdrops,  for  dew 
would  freeze  in  solid  balls.  It  does  not  fall  from  the  air  like 
snow,  for  then  it  would  cover  everything  alike,  and  would  not 
cling  closely  to  things.  It  is  made  from  vapor  that  becomes 
ice  when  it  touches  anything  freezing  cold.  Are  the  particles 
of  frost  like  needles  of  ice  ?     Are  they  like  snowflakes  ? 

Shapes  of  Frost.  —  Look  at  frost  on  different  days.  Have 
its  particles  the  same  shape  every  day  ?  Does  the  frost  on  a 
board  look  like  the  frost  on  the  grass  ?  You  may  have  seen 
rosettes  of  frost  on  a  tin  roof.  Are  these  rosettes  like  the 
rosettes  of  ice  that  form  on  a  wet  board  ? 

When  it  becomes  cold  while  a  fog  is  in  the  air,  the  trees 
and  weeds  are  often  coated  with  a  delicate  white  frost  so  that 
each  twig  seems  covered  with  downy  feathers.  This  feathery 
frost  often  forms  on  bushes  that  overhang  a  running  stream. 
What  is  the  shape  of  its  separate  particles  ? 

Plants  in  Frosty  Weather.  —  How  does  freezing  affect  most 
leaves  and  flowers  ? 

What  kinds  of  garden  vegetables  are  not  harmed  by  frost  ? 
What  kinds  of  green  leaves  can  you  find  in  the  middle  of 
winter  on  the  school  grounds  ?  What  kind  can  you  find  in 
gardens  and  fields  ?  How  does  a  catnip  plant  look  in  winter  ? 
Does  wheat  keep  green  through  the  winter  ?  Do  turnips 
that  have  been  left  in  the  ground  keep  green  tops  ?  Does 
lawn  grass  show  any  living  part  above  ground  in  winter  ? 

In  winter  you  may  often  see  mullein  plants  with  green 
leaves  spread  out  in  rosettes  on  the  ground.  Notice  the 
thickness  of  these  winter  leaves.  They  contain  food  ready 
made  for  new  shoots  to  use  on  the  first  warm  days  of  spring, 
and  next  summer  all  that  will  be  left  of  them  will  be  dried 
skins.     What  other  rosettes  of  leaves  have  you  seen  in  winter  ? 

Notice  a  dandelion  plant  in  winter.  How  large  are  its 
winter  leaves  ? 


XYIII.     PINE   TREE 

Material.  —  Some  young  piue  trees  placed  where  the  pupils  can  exam- 
ine them  at  their  leisure. 

Observation. — What  kind  of  pine  is  the  one  you 
are  studying  ?  Is  its  main  stem  spht  into  branches, 
or  does  it  go  straight  up  through  the  tree  ?  Are  the 
branches  scattered  without  any  order  up  and  down 
the  stem,  or  do  they  grow  in  groups  ?  How  many 
circles  of  branches  are  on  the  tree  ?  How  far  apart 
are  the  circles  ?  How  many  branches  are  in  each 
circle  ?  Are  there  any  branches  except  in  the 
circles  ?  How  are  the  small  branches  arranged  on 
the  large  branches  ? 

How  many  buds  are  on  the  top  of  the  main  stem  ? 
How  many  buds  are  on  the  end  of  each  branch  ?  Do 
you  find  buds  anywhere  else  ?  Are  the  buds  arrany;ed 
like  the  branches  ? 

How  old  is  the  tree  ?  Does  the  number  of  its 
circles  of  branches  ag^ree  with  the  number  of  circles 
on  the  cut  end  of  the  wood  ? 

Drawing  and  Composition.  —  Make  two  pictures  to 
show  the  arrangement  of  the  branches  on  the  pine 
tree.  Make  one  picture  with  lines  in  a  drawing,  and 
the  other  with  words  in  a  composition.     First  picture 

85 


S6 


PINE  TREE 


the  circles  of  branches  on  the  main  stem,  then  the 
small  branches  on  the  sides  of  the  large  branches, 
and  then  the  buds. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  WORK 

History  of  a  Pine  Tree.  —  You  can  easily  read  the  story  of 
a  young  pine's  growth  for  ten  years  or  more.  Get  some  year- 
old  pines,  some  that 
are  two  years  of  age, 
and  some  that  are 
older. 

First  year.  —  A  year- 
old  seedling  pine  is  a 
single  straight  stem. 
On  its  top  it  has  two 
or  three  buds  pointing 
outward,  and  an  up- 
right bud  in  the  center 
of  the  circle.  These 
buds  will  grow  into 
branches  during  the 
second  year. 

Second  year.  —  Each 
bud  grows  into  a  stem 
that  looks  like  a  year- 
old  seedling.  From 
the  upright  bud  an- 
other length  grows  on 
the  central  stem,  and 
the  other  buds  become 
a  circle  of  branches. 
Each  stem  of  the  new  growth  bears  buds  like  those  on  the  top 
of  the  first  year's  growth. 

TJtird  year.  —  In  the  third  year,  and  in  each  year  afterward, 


1 

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Pitch  Pink,  Six  Ykars  Old 


PINE   TREE  87 

the  central  stem  grows  a  new  length  and  forms  a  new  circle  of 
side  branches.  Also  each  side  branch  grows  and  branches  in 
the  same  way  as  if  it  were  the  main  stem." 

In  a  pine  tree,  the  part  above  any  circle  of  branches  looks 
nearly  as  the  whole  tree  did  when  it  was  the  age  of  that  part. 
In  a  large  tree,  count  down  five  circles  of  branches  from  the  top, 
and  see  if  the  part  above  the  lowest  circle  is  not  a  perfect  five- 
year-old  tree.  By  counting  the  circles  of  branches  you  can  tell 
the  age  of  a  pine  tree.  In  the  oldest  tree  there  are  always 
some  parts  that  are  only  a  year  old.     What  parts  are  they  ? 

In  spruce  and  fir  trees  the  branches  grow  even  more  regu- 
larly than  in  the  pine. 

Why  Many  Pine  Limbs  die.  —  After  a  pine  has  grown  in  a 
regular  way  for  four  or  five  years,  its  branches  begin  to  crowd 
one  another.  Then  some  of  them  die  from  want  of  space,  sun- 
light, and  food,  and  some  more  are  killed  by  winds  and  insects. 
So  no  tree  grows  exactly  after  its  plan.  Yet  even  an  old  tree 
plainly  shows  its  plan  of  growth  on  the  ends  of  its  branches, 
while  numbers  of  dead  twigs  on  its  trunk  and  larger  branches 
show  wdien  and  how  it  tried  to  follow  its  model.  Why  are 
there  more  dead  branches  on  a  forest  pine  than  on  a  pine 
tree  that  has  grown  in  a  field  ? 

Where  a  Tree  grows  in  Length.  —  If  you  drive  a  nail  into 
the  trunk  of  a  growing  tree,  Avill  it  be  lifted  farther  and  farther 
from  the  ground  as  the  tree  grows  taller  ?  By  the  end  of  each 
year  each  length  of  new  wood  is  hard  and  fully  formed,  and 
can  not  be  made  longer.  So  the  limbs  always  keep  the  same 
distance  apart,  and  no  limb  or  piece  of  old  wood  is  lifted  up 
from  the  ground.  The  limbs  seem  to  be  lifted  up  because  the 
lower  ones  die.  A  tree  grows  taller  only  because  new  lengths 
of  wood  grow  on  the  outer  ends  of  the  old  wood. 

Why  are  the  branches  farther  apart  on  an  old  tree  than  on 
a  young  one  ?  Why  are  the  upper  branches  nearer  together 
than  the  lower  ones  ?  Why  can  you  not  see  the  remains  of 
any  dead  branches  low  down  on  the  trunk  ? 


XIX.     PINE   LEAVES 

Material.  —  Leafy  branches  from  several  kinds  of  pine  trees. 

Observation.  —  From  what  kind  of  pine  were  the 
leaves  that  you  are  studjdng  taken  ?  What  is  the 
shape  of  one  of  the  leaves?  How  many  inches  long 
is  it  ?  What  is  its  color  ?  What  is  its  odor  ?  What 
is  its  taste  ?  How  many  leaves  grow  together  in  a 
group  ?  Is  there  a  wrapping  around  the  base  of  each 
group  of  leaves  ?  How  far  up  on  the  leaves  does  the 
wrapping  extend  ?     What  is  the  wrapping  like  ? 

Has  a  pine  twig  more  or  fewer  leaves  than  an 
apple  twig  of  the  same  size  ?  Do  pine  leaves  grow 
nearer  together  or  farther  apart  than  apple  leaves? 
On  what  part  of  last  year's  growth  of  wood  do  you 
find  leaves  ? 

Are  there  any  leaves  on  two-year-old  pine  wood  ? 
Are  there  any  on  three-year-old  wood  ?  How  old 
are  pine  leaves  when  they  fall  ?  What  kind  of  scars 
do  they  leave  on  the  bark  ? 

Drawing.  —  Draw  a  picture  of  pine  leaves  in  their 
natural  size,  showing  how  they  grow  together  in 
groups.     Draw  the  wrapping  if  there  is  any. 

Draw  a  picture  of  a  pine  twig,  showing  how  the 
leaves  are  arranged  on  it. 

88 


PINE   LEAVES 


89 


Composition. — Write  a  description  of  the  pine 
leaves  that  you  observed.  In  the  first  paragraph 
describe  the  single  leaves,  in  the  second,  tell  how  the 
leaves  are  arranged  on  the  branch,  and  in  the  third, 
tell  about  the  falling  of  the  leaves. 


SUPPLEMENTARY   WORK 


Age  of  Leaves.  —  In  pines  and  in  most  other  trees  the  leaves 
are  of  the  same  age  as  the  wood  on  which  they  grow,  for  new 


Blossoming  Twig  of  Pitch  Pine 


leaves  seldom  form  on  old  wood.  New  pine  wood  is  almost 
covered  with  leaves,  but  the  older  limbs  are  bare.  What  are 
the  ages  of  the  oldest  leaves  on  white  pine,  on  pitch  pine, 
on  spruce,  and  on  cedar  ? 


90 


PINE   LEAVES 


In  the  fall  the  winds  blow  dry  and  brown  leaves  from  every 
evergreen  tree.  What  is  the  age  of  the  wood  from  which  most 
of  the  leaves  are  shed  in  white  pine  ?  What  is  the  age  of  the 
wood  from  which  most  of  the  leaves  are  shed  in  pitch  pine  ? 
What  is  the  age  of  the  wood  from  which  most  of  the  leaves 
are  shed  in  spruce  ? 

Pitch  Pine  and  White  Pine  Leaves.  —  While  all  kinds  of  pine 
look  much  alike,  there  are  many  differences  in  their  leaves, 
their  bark,  and  their  manner  of  growth.  Compare  a  white 
pine  with  a  pitch  pine.  Which  has  the  softer  leaves  ?  In 
which  is  the  greater  scar  left  by  the  fallen  leaves  ?     In  which 

does  the  new  wood 
have  the  smoother 
bark  ?  What  other 
differences  do  you 
see  between  the  two 
trees  ? 

It  is  easy  to  make 
a  watch  chain  out  of 
pitch  pine  leaves. 
Pull  out  two  of  the 
leaves  from  a  cluster. 
Bend  the  third  leaf 
double,  and  tuck  its  outer  end  into  the  sheath  or  wrapping  on 
the  base  of  the  leaf.  Then  you  have  a  link.  Can  you  make  a 
chain  out  of  white  pine  leaves  ? 

Other  Evergreen  Trees.  —  In  arbor  vitfe  the  smallest  twigs 
are  almost  covered  with  scalelike  leaves  that  overlap  like 
shingles  on  a  roof.  How  old  are  the  leaves  when  they  fall  ? 
How  many  kinds  of  evergreens  do  you  see  on  your  way  to 
school  ?  What  is  the  most  common  kind  in  your  woods  ? 
What  kinds  are  grown  on  the  lawns  of  your  town  ? 

Besides  pines  and  pinelike  trees,  what  other  evergreens 
grow  in  your  woods  ? 


Chain  of  Pitch  Pine  Leaves 


XX.     PINE   CONE 

Material.  —  Pine  cones  that  are  ripe,  but  not  yet  open.  Cut  off  a  few 
scales  from  the  bottom  of  each  cone,  so  tliat  the  other  scales  can  be  easily 
removed. 

Months  before  a  pine  tree  ripens  one  set  of  seeds,  it 
blossoms  and  starts  another  crop  ;  and  until  the  seeds 
are  ready  to  grow,  it  keeps  them  safely  locked  within 
scaly  cones  where  only  a  squirrel  or  a  crossbill  could 
steal  them. 

Observation.  —  On  what  kind  of  pine  did  the  cone 
that  you  are  studying  grow  ?  What  is  the  length 
of  the  cone?  What  is  its  diameter?  What  is  its 
color  ?  Is  it  smooth  or  rough  ?  What  markings 
do  you  find  on  its  surface  ? 

Pick  a  cone  to  pieces.  Of  what  is  it  composed? 
How  are  the  scales  arranged  in  a  cone?  In  re- 
moving them,  at  which  end  did  you  have  to 
begin  ?  What  is  the  size  of  a  scale  ?  What  is  its 
shape?  What  marking  do  you  find  on  its  upper 
end  ? 

How  many  seeds  are  under  each  scale  ?  What  is 
the  size  of  a  pine  seed  ?  What  is  its  shape  ?  What 
is  its  color  ?  What  arrangement  has  a  pine  seed  for 
being  carried  away  after  the  cone  opens  ? 

91 


92 


PINE  CONE 


Drawing  and  Composition.  —  Describe  tke  fruit  of 
a  pine  tree.  Make  a  picture  and  also  a  paragraph 
about  each  of  the  following  topics :  — 

The  whole  cone. 

A  scale  from  the  cone. 

A  seed. 


SUPPLEMENTARY   WORK 

Pine  Flowers. — A  pine  tree  bears  blossoms,  but  its  flowers 
are  not  showy.  One  kind  of  flower  is  a  cluster  of  small  tassels 
or  balls  that  give  off  a  yellow  dust,  or  2^oUen,  when  the  twig  is 
shaken.  Look  for  these  flowers  on  the  sides  of  the  newest 
shoots  in  late  spring. 

Another  kind  of  flower  is  the  young  cone.     It  may  often 
be  found  on  the   same   twig  with  the  tassels.     At  first  the 

young  cones  are  soft,  and 
purple  or  yellow  in  color. 
They  must  get  pollen  dust 
from  the  tassel  flowers  be- 
fore they  can  grow  and  pro- 
duce seed.  This  dust  is 
brought  to  them  by  the 
wind.  The  cones  grow 
through  two  summers  and 
ripen  their  seeds  in  the  fall, 
a  year  and  a  half  after  they 
begin  to  grow.  During  the 
following  winter  tliey  open 
and  set  the  seeds  free. 

Pine  Seeds.  —  Lying  flat 
under  the  scales  are  the  winged  seeds.  Until  the  seeds  are 
ripe,  the  scales  are  pressed  tightly  together.  Put  a  few  un- 
opened cones  on  a  shelf  where  they  will  dry.     In  a  few  days 


Spruce  Cone  and  Seed 


PINE  CONE 


93 


they  will  open  with  sharp  clicks,  and  the  seeds  will  begin  to 
drop  out.  Wet  a  cone  that  has  opened ;  it  will  close  up  and 
open  again   when  it  becomes  dry  once  more. 

Pine  seeds  are  light,  and,  owing  to  their  wings,  are  readily 
blown  about  by  the  wind.  So  young  pines  spring  up  many 
rods  away  from  the  parent  tree. 


Young  Cedars  around  Parent  Tree 


Cones  on  Other  Evergreens.  —  All  kinds  of  pine,  spruce,  tir, 
hemlock,  cypress,  and  arbor  vitse  bear  their  seeds  in  cones. 
What  is  the  difference  between  the  cones  on  a  pitch  pine  and 
those  on  a  white  pine  ?  Could  you  tell  the  cone  of  a  white 
pine  from  the  cone  of  a  Norway  spruce  ?  What  is  the  differ- 
ence between  a  hemlock  cone  and  a  pine  cone  ?  How  large  is 
the  cone  on  an  arbor  vitae  ?  How  large  are  the  seeds  of  an 
arbor  vitae  ? 

How  do  cedars  bear  their  seeds  ?  AVhat  is  the  difference 
between  cedar  seeds  and  pine  seeds  ? 

Do  you  know  a  cone-bearing  tree  that  sheds  all  its  leaves 
in  the  fall  ? 


XXI.     APPLE   BRANCH 

Material.  —  Some  whiplike  shoots  that  grow  along  the  larger  limbs  of 
apple  trees.     Choose  those  shoots  that  have  branches  on  their  sides. 

Observation.  — Notice  the  apple  twig  just  above  its 
highest  branches.  Do  you  find  the  appearance  of  a 
joint?  (The  joint  stands  between  the  growths  of 
two  seasons.)  What  marks  do  you  find  on  the  bark 
at  the  joint?  Do  you  find  other  joints  on  the 
branch  ?  How  old  is  this  branch  ?  How  long  is 
the  part  that  grew  during  the  last  summer? 

On  the  wood  that  grew  during  the  last  season  how 
many  buds  do  you  find  ?  How  are  they  arranged  on 
the  stem  ?  How  far  apart  are  they  ?  What  is  the 
size  of  a  bud  ?  What  is  its  shape  ?  Do  you  find  any 
buds  on  two-year-old  wood  ? 

Below  each  bud  is  the  scar  left  by  a  fallen  leaf. 
What  is  the  shape  of  a  scar  ?  Do  you  find  leaf  scars 
anywhere  except  under  a  bud  ?  How  many  leaves 
did  the  branch  bear  during  the  last  season  ? 

How  many  branches  do  you  find  on  two-year-old 
wood  ?  How  long  is  the  largest  of  those  branches  ? 
How  long  is  the  smallest  ?  On  what  part  of  the  last 
season's  growth  do  you  find  the  longest  branches,  on 
the  half  the  nearer  to  the  tree,  or  on  the  half  the 
farther  away  ? 

94 


APPLE   BRANCH  95 

Drawing.  —  Draw  a  picture  of  the  apple  twig  so 
as  to  show  how  it  grew  during  the  last  two  years. 
Draw  its  joint,  its  buds,  its  leaf  scars,  and  its  side 
branches. 

Composition.  —  Write  a  description  of  the  last  two 
years'  growth  of  the  apple  twig.  Make  the  first  para- 
graph about  its  joint,  the  second  about  its  buds,  the 
third  about  its  leaf  scars,  and  the  fourth  about  its 
side  branches. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  WORK 

Joints.  —  An  apple  branch  grows  in  yearly  lengths  which 
are  marked  by  joints.  By  counting  the  joints  you  can  tell  the 
age  of  the  branch.  After  several  years  the  joints  disappear 
because  of  the  growth  of  the  wood  and  bark.  See  for  how 
many  years  you  can  trace  the  joints  back  from  the  tip  end  of 
a  large  branch  of  an  apple  tree. 

Buds.  —  When  a  newly  grown  stem  is  only  a  few  weeks  old, 
it  prepares  all  the  buds  that  will  ever  appear  on  that  part  of 
the  stem.  Like  a  pine,  it  places  a  bud  on  the  tip  of  each 
branch,  but  instead  of  placing  the  other  buds  around  the  end 
bud  as  a  pine  does,  it  scatters  them  over  the  whole  length  of 
the  shoot,  placing  one  above  each  leaf.  What  is  the  difference 
between  the  buds  on  the  side  of  an  apple  branch  and  those 
on  its  end  ? 

Carefully  peel  a  bud  and  a  little  bark  from  the  wood  of  a 
twig.     Do  you  find  any  mark  on  the  wood  under  the  bud  ? 

Usually,  only  those  buds  at  or  near  the  outer  end  of  a  shoot 
open  and  grow.  The  rest  stand  still  unless  the  end  of  the 
limb  should  be  broken  off.  Then  the  buds  on  the  part  that  is 
left  may  grow,  even  if  they  have  waited  four  or  five  years  for 
the  chance.  Look  for  the  unopened  buds  on  a  large  apple 
branch.     How  old  are  the  oldest  buds  that  you  find  ?     What 


96 


APPLE   BRANCH 


Thkee-year-old  Apple  Branch 


is  the  difference  between  the 
buds  on  the  ohler  wood  and 
those    on    the   newest    wood  ? 

Branches.  —  From  each  open- 
ing bud  there  grow  a  woody 
shoot  and  a  number  of  leaves. 
From  the  bud  on  the  end  of 
the  twig  another  length  grows 
on  the  stem,  and  from  the  buds 
on  the  side  of  the  stem  there 
grow  branches.  Each  bud  that 
grows  usually  opens  in  the  spring 
after  it  was  formed.  80  side 
branches  are  usually  one  year 
younger  than  the  stems  on  which 
they  grow. 

If  all  the  shoots  that  start 
should  keep  on  growing,  the  tree 
would  soon  become  a  solid  mass 
of  branches ;  but  only  a  few 
grow  to  much  size.  ^Vhy  is 
this  ? 

Even  though  only  a  few 
branches  grow  large,  an  apple 
tree  usually  has  too  many  limbs. 
For  this  reason  farmers  prune 
their  trees  by  cutting  out  the 
inner  limbs  so  that  the  leafy 
parts  are  like  a  shell  over  a  hol- 
low center.  Then  the  branches 
that  are  left  will  get  more  food 
and  sunlight,  and  will  be  the 
more  likely  to  bear  good  fruit. 

On  the  sides  of  the  large 
branches    you    may    often    see 


APPLE   BPtAXCII  97 

short,  rough  twigs.  These  are  stunted  branches  that  grow 
hardly  the  width  of  a  joint  in  a  year. 

If  the  whole  top  of  an  apj^le  tree  is  cut  off,  new  shoots  will 
spring  from  the  trunk  even  where  there  are  no  buds,  and  the 
bark  is  thick  and  dry.  Along  the  upper  side  of  large  branches 
whiplike  shoots  often  spring  up.  These  shoots  take  food  that 
should  go  to  the  fruit,  and  so  the  farmer  keeps  them  cut  off. 

Why  an  Apple  Tree  grows  crooked.  —  A  year-old  apple  seed- 
ling is  a  single  straight  stem  with  a  bud  on  its  tip.  For  three 
or  four  years  it  usually  grows  with  a  central  straight  stem 
like  a  pine.  It  would  keep  on  growing  so,  if  the  bud  on  the 
tip  of  the  stem  always  grew  to  be  a  strong  shoot.  But  some- 
times the  bud  becomes  an  apple  instead  of  a  shoot.  Sometimes 
the  bud  is  broken  off,  and  sometimes  it  is  injured  by  insects. 
Then  the  tree  has  to  grow  by  means  of  its  side  branches,  and 
so  grows  crooked. 

How  is  a  pine  bud  protected  so  that  it  seldom  fails  to  grow  ? 

Leaf  Marks.  —  On  many  trees  the  scars  left  by  the  fallen 
leaves  show  much  more  plainly  than  on  an  apple  tree.  Look 
at  the  scars  on  a  horse  chestnut,  hickory,  or  ailantus  tree. 
How  are  they  different  from  the  scars  on  an  apple  branch  ? 
The  scars  are  shaped  like  the  base  of  a  leaf  stem,  and  in  no 
two  kinds  of  trees  are  they  quite  alike. 


OVER.    NAT.    STUD.  7 


XXII.     APPLE   FRUIT   SPUR 

Material.  —  Apple  branches  from  the  ends  of  fruit-bearing  limbs. 

Observation.  —  On  tlie  apple  twig  do  you  find  short, 
swollen  lengths  that  look  as  if  something  had  been 
broken  from  their  ends  ?  These  are  spurs  on  which 
apples  grew.  How  many  spurs  do  you  find?  Look 
at  one  of  the  largest  spurs.  What  is  its  length  ? 
How  much  larger  around  is  it  than  the  stem  on 
which  it  grows  ?     Has  it  a  shoot  on  its  side  ? 

How  many  round  scars  do  you  find  on  the  tip  of 
the  spur  ?  From  each  scar  an  apple  fell.  How  many 
apples  tried  to  grow  on  the  twig  last  summer  ? 

Notice  the  buds  on  the  ends  of  the  side  branches 
of  the  twig.  Are  some  of  them  much  larger  than 
others  ?  The  large  ones  are  probably  blossom  buds. 
How  many  blossoms  Avould  the  twig  probably  have 
put  forth  next  spring  ? 

Drawing.  —  Draw  a  picture  of  an  apple  fruit  spur. 
Show  the  scars  on  its  end,  the  shoot  on  its  side,  and 
the  blossom  bud,  if  there  is  one. 

Composition.  —  Write  a  history  of  the  fruit  spur. 
Describe  the  spur  and  tell  what  you  can  about  the 
apples  that  it  bore.  Tell  what  you  think  would  have 
grown  from  it  next  year  if  it  had  not  been  cut  off. 

98 


APPLE   FRUIT   SPUR 


99 


SUPPLEMENTARY   WORK 

How  Fruit  Spurs  grow.  —From  each  apple  blossom  bud  there 
grows  a  fruit  spur  which  bears  from  three  to  five  blossoms  on 
its  end,  and  leaves  on  its  side.  The  spur  reaches  the  length  of 
about  an  inch  by  the  time 
the  blossoms  open,  and 
then  it  grows  n6  more  in 
length  but  becomes  larger 
around  than  other  shoots. 
All  further  lengthening  of 
the  branch  beyond  the 
place  where  the  ax)ple  grew 
goes  on  by  means  of  a 
shoot  from  the  side  of  the 
spur.  The  spur  itself  al- 
ways looks  as  if  it  had 
been  broken  off. 

Apple  Scars.  —  Soon  af- 
ter the  blossoms  fall  most 
of  the  young  apples  also 
fall,  leaving  scars  which 
may  be  seen  for  some 
weeks.  The  older  apples 
in  falling  leave  scars 
which  may  be  seen  for 
months  or  years  after- 
ward.     You  can  tell   the 

scars  left  by  the  ripe  apples  by  their  very  large  size.  Usually 
only  one  apple  on  each  spur  grows  to  much  size,  and  only 
about  one  spur  in  ten  ripens  an  apple.  If  every  blossom  pro- 
duced a  ripe  apple,  the  limbs  would  break  beneath  their  load. 

Side  Shoots.  —  Within  a  week  or  two  after  the  blossoms  fall 
the  young  spur  usually  sends  out  one  or  two  side  shoots. 
When  do  side  shoots  usually  start  on  other  branches  ? 


Year-old  Fruit  Spurs  and  SmE 
Shoots 


100 


APPLE   FRUIT   SPUR 


A  side  shoot  usually  becomes  only  a  short  stub  in  its  first 
summer's  growth  if  an  apple  ripens;  but  if  the  apple  falls  early, 
the  shoot  may  grow  six  inches  or  more,  and  after  a  few  years 
may  become  a  large  limb. 

Blossom  Buds.  —  In  the  same  year  that  a  fruit  spur  ripens 
an  apple,  its  side  shoot  usually  makes  no  blossom  bud.  The 
next  year  the   shoot  usually  grows    in  length  and   makes  a 

blossom  bud  on  its  end, 
and  in  the  following  year 
forms  an  apple.  Hence  a 
branch  seldom  bears  ripe 
apples  more  often  than 
every  second  year.  If  all 
the  branches  bloom  in  one 
year,  the  tree  will  not 
bear  apples  the  next  year. 
When  a  tree  bears  every 
year,  half  of  its  branches 
blossom  in  one  year  and 
the  other  half  in  the  next 
year. 

The   side   shoot    on    a 

spur  from  which  a  green 

apple  falls   may  form    a 

blossom  bud  in  the  same 

year  that  the  apple  grew. 

Hence  a  second  blossom 

may  appear   in   the  next 

year   after   the    first   one 

opens.     Have  any  of  the  fruit  spurs  that  you  observe  blossom 

buds  on  their  side  shoots  ?    Did  any  of  the  spurs  with  blossom 

buds  ripen  apples  last  season  ? 

Age  of  Fruit  Spurs.  — The  age  of  fruit  spurs  and  their 
branches  may  be  read  in  the  same  way  as  the  age  of  other 
shoots,  if  we  remember  that  a  side  shoot,  up  to  its  first  joint, 


Apple  Branch  with  Fruit  Spurs 


\ 


APPLE   FRUIT   SPUR  101 

is  of  the  same  age  as  the  spur  on  which  it  grows.  Look  at  an 
apple  twig  and  read  its  history.  How  many  ripe  apples  has 
it  borne  ?  In  what  years  did  it  bear  them  ?  How  many  green 
apples  has  it  borne  ? 

Notice  an  apple  tree  that  has  failed  to  bear  fruit.  Do  you 
find  fruit  spurs  on  it  ?  Does  the  tree  need  pruning  ?  Have 
insects  injured  the  tree  ?     Is  the  soil  poor  ? 

Fruit  Spurs  on  Other  Trees.  —  Look  at  a  pear  branch.  The 
joints,  fruit  spurs,  and  fruit  scars  are  marked  on  it  even  more 
plainly  than  on  an  apple  branch. 

Do  peach  trees  bear  their  fruit  on  the  ends  of  their  shoots 
or  along  the  sides  ?  On  peach  trees  the  fruit  buds  are  usually 
in  threes.  The  two  outer  buds  become  blossoms,  and  the 
middle  one  produces  leaves.  Are  peaches  borne  on  new  wood 
or  on  last  year's  wood  ?  Look  at  a  peach  tree  in  winter  and 
notice  the  short,  dead  stems  that  bore  peaches  in  summer. 


XXIII,     EARTHWORM 

Material.  —  Earthworms  in  a  box  of  damp  soil.  During  the  study 
period  have  each  pupil  place  a  worm  on  a  piece  of  moist  blotting  paper. 
At  the  end  of  the  lesson  turn  all  the  worms  loose  on  mellow  soil. 

Observation.  —  How  many  inches  long  is  the  worm 
that  you  are  studying  ?  What  is  its  shape  ?  What 
is  its  color  ?  How  many  joints  has  it  ?  How  is  its 
head  end  different  from  its  tail  end  ?  Does  its  back 
look  different  from  its  under  side  ?  Where  is  its 
mouth  ?     Has  it  eves  ? 

Look  for  a  vein  on  its  back  and  another  on  its  under 
side.  Cormt  the  number  of  beats  that  the  veins  make 
in  a  minute.     How  many  does  your  own  pulse  make  ? 

How  does  a  worm  travel  ?  Touch  its  head  and  see 
if  it  will  travel  backward. 

Drawing  and  Composition.  —  Draw  a  picture  of  an 
earthworm,  and  then  write  a  paragraph  about  the  body 
of  the  worm,  another  paragraph  about  its  pulse^,  and 
a  tliKd  paragraph  telling  how  it  travels. 

SUPPLEMENTARY   WORK 

Wonnholes.  —  An  earthworm  lives  in  the  earth,  in  a  smooth       j' 
tunnel  which  it  makes  by  swallowing  the  soil  and  casting  it       i^ 


out  again. 


102 


EARTHWORM 


103 


If  there  is  a  cellar  being  dug  near  you,  you  can  probably 
see  wormholes  in  the  firm  earth  ou  its  sides.  Are  the  holes 
straight  or  crooked  ?  They  are  often  close  together,  and  reach 
to  the  bottom  of  the  cellar,  so  that  they  look  like  the  roots  of 
trees. 

Habits  of  Earthworms.  —  Put  some  earthworms  in  a  box  of 
damp  soil  and  cover  them  with  black  paper  or  cloth,  to  keep 
out  the  light.  Feed  them  with  small  bits  of  cabbage  leaves  or 
fat  meat,  and  keep  the  ground  moist,  but  not  soaking  wet. 


Earthworm 

Take  the  cover  off  from  the  box  of  worms  without  jarring  the 
box.  While  you  watch  them,  what  do  they  do  ?  Do  they  eat  ? 
Do  they  seem  able  to  see  anything  ?  Clap  your  hands  together. 
Do  the  worms  seem  to  hear?  Tap  on  the  box.  Do  the  worms 
seem  to  feel  the  jar  ? 

An  earthworm  gets  some  food  from  the  soil  which  it  swal- 
lows, but  at  night  it  often  lies  stretched  on  the  ground  in 
search  of  bits  of  leaves  and  scraps  of  vegetables  and  meat 
for  food.  At  daylight  it  stops  the  mouth  of  its  tunnel  with 
pieces  of  grass  and  leaves  and  lies  quiet  near  the  surface  of 
the  ground. 

Watch  a  robin  search  for  worms  in  the  morning.  How  hard 
does  the  bird  have  to  pull  in  order  to  get  the  Avorm  out  of  the 
hole?  Does  a  worm  ever  prove  to  be  the  stronger  and  get 
away? 


104  EARTHWORM 

An  Earthworm's  Work.  —  After  a  rainy  day  our  paths  and 
lawns  are  often  almost  covered  with  little  heaj^s  of  dirt  that 
earthworms  have  cast  up  from  their  holes.  The  earth  thrown 
out  during  the  summer  is  enough  to  cover  the  ground  nearly 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  deep.  Thus  worms  plow  the  soil  for  the 
farmer  and  enrich  it  by  burying  grass  and  bones  and  every- 
thing else  that  lies  on  the  ground.  They  loosen  the  soil  to  a 
greater  depth  than  man  can  reach  with  his  plow,  and  they 
open  ways  for  plants  to  reach  down  many  feet  through  soils 
too  firm  for  their  roots  alone  to  pierce. 

How  Earthworms  travel.  —  As  you  hold  an  earthworm  with 
one  hand  and  gently  pass  the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  the 
other  hand  along  its  body,  you  may  feel  two  rows  of  little 
spines.  In  order  to  feel  them  the  more  plainly,  which  way 
must  you  pass  your  fingers,  toward  its  head  or  toward  its  tail? 
These  spines  are  a  kind  of  feet.  A  worm  travels  up  and  down 
its  smooth  tunnel  by  thrusting  forward  the  front  half  of  its 
body  and  holding  by  its  spines  while  it  draws  up  the  hinder 
half. 

An  Earthworm's  Blood.  —  If  a  large  earthworm  is  kept  warm 
and  moist,  you  can  plainly  see  the  pulse  beating  in  its  blood  tubes. 
In  which  vein  does  the  blood  flow  toward  the  head,  in  the  one 
on  its  back,  or  in  the  under  one  ? 

An  earthworm  breathes  through  its  skin.  If  its  skin  be- 
comes dry,  the  worm  soon  dies.     Why  ? 


XXIV.     ONION 

Material.  —  Onions  cut  in  two  lengthwise.  If  the  halves  are  dried  for 
a  week,  their  layers  may  be  more  plainly  traced. 

Observation.  —  How  thick  are  the  outer  wrappings 
of  the  onion?  What  is  their  color?  How  many 
roots  has  the  onion  ?  What  is  the  shape  of  the  roots  ? 
Do  you  see  any  green  leaves  on  the  outside  of  the 
onion  ? 

How  many  layers  do  you  see  on  the  cut  side  of 
the  onion  ?  How  thick  is  one  of  the  layers  ?  To 
what  are  the  layers  fastened  ?  What  is  their  color  ? 
Where  are  the  leaves  inside  of  the  onion?  Where 
is  the  stem  to  which  they  are  fastened  ?  What  is 
the  shape  of  the  stem  ?  Of  what  is  the  greater  part 
of  the  onion  composed,  stern,  leaves,  or  roots  ? 

Drawing  and  Composition.  —  Draw  a  picture  and 
write  a  description,  first,  of  the  outside  of  an  onion, 
and  second,  of  the  inside  of  an  onion  that  has  been 
cut  in  two  lengthwise. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  WORK 

Seed  Onions.  —  An  onion  plant  blossoms  and  bears  seed.  If 
a  seed  is  planted  in  the  spring,  a  new  onion  forms  during  the 
summer.  In  the  fall  its  leaves  die,  but  the  onion  itself  consists 
of  new  leaves  and  a  flower  stalk,  wrapped  into  a  ball  called 

105 


106 


ONION 


a  halh.  If  the  onion  is  set  in  the  soil  again  in  the  following 
spring,  the  new  top  quickly  lifts  itself  up  from  the  bulb,  before 
other  plants  can  get  a  start.  Cut  an  onion  in  two  crosswise. 
The  white  layers  are  leaves  stored  full  of  food  which  the  green 
or  yellow  leaves  use  in  their  growth.  Does  each  of  the  white 
layers  reach  all   the  way  around  an   onion  ?     If   the   onion 

were  set  out  again,  what 
would  the  yellow  cen- 
ter become  ? 

Let  an  onion  bulb  lie 
on  the  window  sill  for  a 
few  weeks  and  watch  it 
as  the  new  leaves  grow 
out.  Does  the  bulb 
grow  larger  or  smaller  ? 
After  its  leaves  have 
sprouted,  is  the  onion 
good  for  food  ?  When 
the  tops  reach  their  full 
size,  how  much  of  the 
bulb  is  left  ? 

Top    Onions.  —  Some 

kinds  of  onions  produce 

small  bulbs  on  the  tops 

of  their  seed  stalks.    If 

one   of  these   bulbs   is 

set  in  the  soil,  it  grows 

and    becomes    a    large 

onion,  and  then  sends  up  a  shoot  which  will  bear  small  bulbs 

instead  of  seeds.     Some  of  the  small  "  seed "  onions  that  are 

sold  for  growing  an  early  crop  are  raised   in  this  way,  but 

most  of  them  are  small  ones  that  were  raised  from  seed  late 

in  the  fall,  and  were  pulled  up  while  they  were  still  small. 

Multiplier  Onions.  —  One  kind  of  onion,  when  it  reaches  its 

full  size,  breaks  up  into  from  two  to  five  smaller  bulbs.     If 


Lily  Bulb  cut  in  Two  Lengthwise 


ONION  107 

one  of  these  small  bulbs  is  set  out,  it  will  grow  large  and  then 
will  split  itself  up  into  smaller  ones  as  the  hrst  onion  did. 

Lily  Bulb. — A  lily  blossoms  and  bears  seed.  On  the  sides 
of  the  stalks  of  one  kind,  the  tiger  lily,  are  small  black 
bulbs  like  the  bulbs  on  top  onions.  But  lilies  commonly  grow 
from  underground  bulbs  like  multiplier  onions.  Each  lily 
bulb  is  like  an  onion.  In  its  center  it  contains  leaves  and 
blossom  buds.  Early  in  the  season  the  leaves  spring  up  and 
the  blossoms  open,  and  then  the  tops  may  die ;  but  growth  still 
goes  on,  for  the  plants  spend  the  rest  of  the  summer  in  form- 
ing new  bulbs  and  in  storing  them  full  of  food  for  next  3^ear's 
growth.  Thus  a  lily  is  sure  of  making  a  good  growth  for  at 
least  another  year. 

Get  a  Chinese  lily  and  place  it  on  some  stones  in  a  dish  of 
water.  In  about  a  month  it  will  produce  as  large  leaves  and 
blossoms  as  if  it  had  been  planted  in  the  soil.  Where  does  it 
get  its  plant  food  ?  Will  new  lilies  grow  from  it  next  year  ? 
Each  bulb  has  enough  food  stored  away  to  form  full-grown 
leaves  and  blossoms,  but  not  enough  to  form  new  bulbs  unless 
it  gets  new  plant  food  from  the  soil. 

Hyacinths.  —  Hyacinths  are  among  the  common  flowering 
bulbs  that  are  easily  and  quickly  raised.  Set  out  some  hya- 
cinth bulbs  in  flowerpots  and  watch  them  as  they  unfold  their 
leaves  and  blossoms. 

How  many  kinds  of  bulbs  do  you  know  ? 

Bulblike  Parts  of  Plants. — A  potato  is  not  a  bulb,  but  is  the 
thickened  part  of  an  underground  branch.  Its  "eyes"  are 
buds.  Put  a  potato  in  a  shallow  dish  of  water  in  a  sunny 
window ;  it  will  turn  green  like  any  other  branch,  and  its  eyes 
will  put  forth  leaves. 

Is  a  turnip  a  bulb,  a  branch,  or  a  root  ? 


XXV.     MAPLE   SEED 

Material.  —  Maple  seeds,  brought  by  the  pupils  if  possible.  Look  for 
them  on  the  ground  around  sugar  maples  or  Norway  maples. 

Observation.  — What  is  the  size  of  this  seed  ?  \Yhat 
is  its  shape  ?  What  is  its  color  ?  What  markings  do 
you  see  on  it  ?  Where  is  the  part  that  sprouts  ? 
What  is  the  size  of  that  part  ?     What  is  its  shape  ? 

Pick  the  shell  from  a  seed.  How  many  coverings 
are  around  the  plant  that  is  within  ?  How  thick  is 
the  inner  covering  ?  What  is  its  color  ?  How  does 
it  feel  to  the  touch  ? 

Unfold  the  seed  plant.  What  is  its  color  ?  How 
long  a  stem  has  it  ?  How  many  leaves  has  it  ?  How 
large  is  a  leaf  ?  How  thick  is  it  ?  How  are  the 
leaves  packed  away  in  a  seed  ?  Do  you  find  a  small 
bud  between  the  leaves  ? 

Drawing.  —  Draw  a  picture  of  a  whole  maple  seed, 
and  another  picture  of  the  seed  plant  as  it  looks  when 
it  is  unfolded. 

Composition.  —  Write  a  description  of  a  maple 
seed,  following  these  topics  :  — 

The  whole  seed. 
The  seed  coverings. 
The  seed  plant. 

108 


MAPLE   SEED 


109 


SUPPLEMENTARY   WORK 

How  Maple  Seeds  sprout.  —  Maple  seeds  usually  sprout  while 
they  lie  on  the  top  of  the  ground,  or  are  only  lightly  covered. 
Scatter  a  number  of  maple  seeds  on  some  soil  in  a  box  in  the 
schoolroom,  and  keep  the  earth  wet ;  or  bring  some  sprouting 
seeds  to  school  and  plant  them  in  the  soil.  The  first  leaves 
that  appear  are  those  that 
were  already  formed  within 
the  seed.  Watch  the  plants 
as  they  unfold  from  their 
coverings,  while  their  stems 
lengthen  and  grow  down- 
ward into  the  soil.  Then 
see  how  the  tiny  bud  be- 
tween the  first  leaves  grows 
and  becomes  a  second  pair 
of  leaves.  How  do  the  sec- 
ond pair  of  leaves  differ 
from  the  first  pair  ? 

The  First  Food  of  a  Seed- 
ling Maple.  —  Watch  the  first 
pair  of  leaves  on  a  growing 
seedling.  As  the  plants 
grow,  the  leaves  become  thin- 
ner and  thinner,  for  their  g^^^^^  ^^^  Seedling  of  Silver 
substance  goes  to  make  the  ]\Uple 

stem,  roots,  and  second  pair 

of  leaves,  until  the  roots  can  fix  themselves  in  the  soil.  Finally 
only  their  yellow  skins  are  left.  Plant  some  maple  seeds  in 
sand.  Then  the  seedlings  can  not  get  much  food  except  from 
the  seed  leaves.     See  how  large  the  plants  will  become. 

Seeds  sprouting  under  Parent  Trees.  —  What  kind  of  maples 
are  growing  along  the  sidewalks  near  your  home  ?  Look  under 
and  around  them  for  their  seeds,     All  through  the  year  you 


110 


MAPLE   SEED 


can  usually  find  maple  seeds  and  young  maples  along  fences 
and  hedgerows  near  the  parent  trees.  The  seeds  of  Norway 
maples  and  sugar  maples  ripen  in  the  autumn,  and,  as  they  fall, 
are  scattered  by  the  wind.  They  lie  on  the  ground  all  winter 
and  sprout  when  they  are  soaked  by  the  warm  rains  of  spring. 
Their  stems  sometimes  lengthen  so  fast  in  a  single  night  that 

the  whole  seeds  are 
lifted  upright  from  the 
ground,  before  their 
coverings  have  fallen 
off.  Then  you  may  see 
the  winged  seeds  stand- 
ing upright  around  the 
parent  tree,  and  sway- 
ing in  the  wind  like 
dancing  children. 

The  seeds  of  silver 
maples  ripen  in  early 
summer  and  sprout  al- 
most as  soon  as  they 
fall. 

"What  becomes  of  Seed- 
lings.—  A  parent  tree 
sows  great  numbers  of 
its  seeds  over  the  surrounding  soil,  but  although  most  of  them 
may  sprout,  only  a  few  that  fall  on  the  best  places  will  become 
large  trees.  Weeds  and  grass  will  choke  many  before  they 
get  a  start,  and  those  that  do  grow  will  soon  begin  to  crowd 
one  another.  In  a  clump  of  seedlings  that  have  grown  for 
three  or  four  years  a  few  trees  will  be  large  and  strong,  and 
between  them  will  be  many  that  are  slender  whips,  and  others 
still  smaller  that  have  been  crowded  to  death.  After  twenty 
years  only  a  few  of  the  largest  trees  wall  be  left.  Their  trunks 
will  stand  far  apart,  but  their  branches  will  meet  in  a  canopy 
overhead. 


Sprouting  Seeds  of  Norway  Maple 


MAPLE   SEED 


111 


Other  Sprouting  Tree  Seeds.  —  In  the  spring  look  for  young 
cherry  trees  sprouting  from  the  pits  of  fallen  fruit.  AYhat  is 
the  difference  between  maple  seedlings  and  cherry  seedlings  ? 

In  the  fall  look  for  sprouting  oak  seeds.  Acorns  lie  on  the 
ground  and  send  their  roots  into  the  soil  like  maple  seedlings. 

Raising  Trees.  —  When  America  was  settled  by  white  men 
a  large  part  of  the  land  was  covered  with  valuable  forests. 
Are  many  of  the  trees  left  near  you  ?  Do  you  know  of  any 
unused  lots  on  which  trees  are  springing  up  from  seed  ?  Have 
the  young  trees  grown  much  since  you  can  remember  ?  A 
young  white  pine  or  wild  cherry  tree  will  grow  about  two  feet 
in  each  year,  and  will  become  a  good-sized  shade  tree  before  a 
boy  becomes  a  man.  Men  plant  tree  seeds  in  order  to  raise 
a  crop  of  trees  for  lumber,  or  shade,  or  ornament. 

In  the  fall  plant  a  row  of  peach  pits  in  your  garden.  Care 
for  the  seedlings  as  you  care  for  vegetables,  and  you  will  soon 
have  valuable  fruit  trees  to  set  in  your  yard. 

Wild  cherries,  blackwalnuts,  chestnuts,  maples,  and  oaks 
are  among  the  trees  that  may  readily  be  raised  from  seed. 


XXVI.     SPROUTING   BEAN 

Material.  —  Some  beans  that  have  been  soaked  in  warm  water  over 
night,  and  some  sprouted  beans.  Plant  some  beans  next  to  the  glass  in 
a  tumbler  of  moist  sawdust,  so  that  they  can  be  easily  seen  while  they 
sprout.  Wrap  thick  paper  around  the  glass  to  keep  out  the  light.  Give 
the  lesson  when  the  beans  are  breaking  through  the  surface  of- the  soil. 

Observation.  —  What  part  of  a  bean  plant  first 
appears  above  ground  ?  When  the  upper  end  of  a 
bean  plant  appears,  how  many  leaves  has  it  ?  How 
great  a  part  of  the  bean  that  was  planted  comes  up 
with  the  new  plant  ?  How  large  is  the  stem  of  the 
plant  ?    What  becomes  of  the  outer  skin  of  the  bean  ? 

Split  open  a  fresh  bean  and  find  in  it  the  first  pair 
of  leaves  that  wdll  appear  above  ground.  How  great 
a  part  of  the  bean  do  the  leaves  form  ?  Find  the  be- 
ginnings of  a  stem  and  of  the  second  pair  of  leaves. 
In  what  part  of  the  bean  are  they  ?  How  large  are 
they  ?  Does  the  stem  point  toward  the  hollow,  or 
toward  the  back  of  the  bean  ? 

Drawing.  —  Draw  a  picture  of  the  inside  of  a  split 
bean.  Make  this  picture  large  enough  to  show  the 
young  plant  that  is  in  the  bean.  Draw  also  a  picture 
of  a  bean  plant  that  has  just  come  up. 

Composition.  —  Write  a  paragraph  describing  a 
young  bean  plant,  and  another  paragraph  about  the 
plant  as  it  appears  in  an  unsprouted  bean. 

112 


SPROUTING   BEAN 


113 


SUPPLEMENTARY  WORK 

How  a  Bean  comes  up.  —  In  every  seed  a  young  plant  is 
wrapped  up  just  as  a  plant  is  wrapped  in  a  bulb.  In  only  a 
few  other  seeds  can  the  new  plant  be  so  plainly  seen  as  in  a 
bean. 

When  a  bean  sprouts,  the  growing  stem  lifts  the  whole  bean 
above  ground.     How  is  the  sprouted  bean  changed  in  color? 


Sprouting  Beans 


What  becomes  of  the  first  pair  of  leaves  on  a  bean  plant  ? 
How  soon  after  the  bean  comes  up  do  the  second  pair  of  leaves 
appear  ? 

How  Some  Other  Seeds  come  up. — Plant  some  peas  as  you 
did  the  beans.     When  the  new  pea  plants  appear  do  the  seeds 


OVER.     NAT,     STUD. 


114  SPROUTING   BEAN 

rise  above  ground  as  the  bean  seeds  did  ?  What  is  the  shape 
of  the  first  pea  leaves  that  appear  ? 

Plant  some  kernels  of  corn.  Where  is  the  kernel  after 
the  young  shoot  has  come  up  ?  What  is  the  shape  of  the  first 
shoot  that  appears  above  ground  ? 

Keep  some  grains  of  corn  in  a  moist  sponge  for  a  few  days, 
and  look  at  the  young  sprouts  when  they  first  appear.  What 
is  the  shape  of  a  corn  sprout  ?  What  is  its  color  ?  Does  it 
grow  toward  the  top  of  the  kernel,  or  toward  the  small  end  ? 
Does  it  split  the  kernel  open  or  grow  from  its  side  ? 

Plant  some  onion  seeds.  You  will  see  something  interest- 
ing when  the  new  shoots  appear  above  ground. 

Open  the  kernel  of  a  peanut  and  see  if  you  can  find  the 
stem  and  leaves  of  a  young  plant  in  it. 

Direction  of  Growth. — Turn  the  tumbler  in  which  a  bean  is 
growing  on  its  side  for  a  day  or  two.  In  which  direction  does 
the  bean  stalk  now  grow  ?  Turn  the  tumbler  upright  again. 
What  does  the  stem  do  now  ?  In  which  direction  does  a  stem 
always  grow  ?     In  which  direction  does  the  root  grow  ? 

Which  side  up  should  you  plant  a  bean  so  that  the  root  end 
of  the  stem  will  not  have  to  turn  in  order  to  grow  downward  ? 
Does  the  position  of  planting  a  bean  make  any  difference  with 
its  coming  up  ? 

Climbing  Vines.  —  How  does  a  bean  vine  climb  a  pole  ?  Does 
it  twine  around  a  pole  in  the  same  direction  in  which  the  hands 
of  a  watch  move,  or  in  the  opposite  direction  ? 

In  which  direction  does  a  hop  vine  twine  ? 

How  does  a  pea  vine  climb  a  bush  ? 

How  does  a  grape  vine  support  itself  ? 

How  does  an  ivy  hold  fast  to  a  wall  ?  How  does  the  Vir- 
ginia creeper  cling  ? 


XXYII.     MAPLE   BUD 

Material. — Blossom  buds  from  Norway  maples  or  sugar  maples. 
Choose  those  that  are  just  bursting.  Horse-chestnut  buds  may  also  be 
used. 

Observation.  —  Look  at  a  maple  bud  that  is  about 
to  open.  How  large  is  it  ?  What  is  its  shape  ? 
What  is  its  color  ?  Has  it  changed  since  winter  ? 
What  is  the  difference  between  a  blossom  bud  and 
one  that  has  leaves  only  ?     Which  kind  opens  first  ? 

How  many  scales  are  on  the  outside  of  a  maple 
bud  ?  How  large  is  a  scale  ?  What  is  its  color  ? 
How  thick  is  it  ?  How  does  its  surface  feel  to  the 
fingers  ? 

Cut  a  bud  in  two  lengthwise.  Do  you  find  any 
leaves  in  the  bud  ?  Do  you  find  any  blossoms  ? 
How  are  the  leaves  and  blossoms  packed  away  ? 

Drawing.  —  Draw  a  picture  of  an  opening  maple 
bud,  and  another  of  the  inside  of  a  bud  that  is  cut  in 
two  lengthwise. 

Composition.  —  Write  a  description  of  an  opening 

maple  bud,  making  a  paragraph  about  each  of  these 

topics :  — 

The  whole  bud. 

Its  scales. 

The  parts  inside  the  bud. 

115 


116 


MAPLE  BUD 


SUPPLEMENTARY  WORK 

Contents  of  Buds.  —  In  every  bud  there  are  leaves  and  a  stem, 
and  in  many  there  are  blossoms  also.     These  parts  are  wrapped 


Blossom  Buds  of  Norway  IVIaple 


in  fuzzy  or  sticky  scales,  so  that  they  are  well  protected  from 
the  wind  and  rain. 

How  Buds  grow. — Watch  a  young  shoot  growing  from  a 
bud.  When  sap  begins  to  flow  in  spring,  the  stem  within  the 
bud  lengthens  into  a  shoot.  Within  a  few  weeks  the  new 
shoot  usually  grows  to  be  as  long  as  it  ever  will  be.     At  first 


MAPLE   BUD 


117 


it  is  soft  and  watery,  but  during  the  latter  half  of  summer  it 
uses  its  food  in  hardening  its  wood  and  in  forming  buds  for 
next  season's  growth. 

Which  tree  blos- 
soms the  earlier  in 
spring,  the  Norway  ma- 
ple or  the  silver  maple  ? 
In  the  silver  maple 
which  appear  first, 
leaves   or   blossoms  ? 

A  Cabbage  is  a  Bud.  — 
A  cabbage  head  is  a 
giant  bud  on  the  top  of 
a  stalk.  Look  at  the 
next  cabbage  that  you 
have  for  dinner.  Its 
central  stem  and  leaves 
are  like  the  stem  and 
leaves  of  a  maple  bud, 
but  it  lacks  a  scaly  cov- 


ering. 


If  a  cabbasre  is 


allowed    to    grow,    the 


Blossom  Bud  of  Norway  Maple 
expanded 


stem  within  the  head 
lengthens  into  a  tall  stalk  which  has  the  leaves  of  the  head 
arranged  a  few  inches  apart  along  its  whole  length.  This 
stem  bears  flowers  and  seeds. 

What  other  garden  vegetables  grow  in  heads,  or  buds  ? 

Age  Marks.  —  When  a  bud  opens,  its  scaly  coverings  fall 
and  leave  scars  on  the  bark.  The  scars,  instead  of  remaining 
close  together,  are  drawn  a  little  apart  by  the  growth  of  the 
central  stem,  so  that  they  form  a  ring  about  an  eighth  of  an 
inch  across.  These  rings  are  formed  wherever  a  bud  stood 
and  show  the  beginning  of  each  year's  growth.     (See  p.  95.) 

Buds  are  like  Bulbs.  —  Buds  and  bulbs  are  much  alike.  In 
both,  while  this  year's  crop  of  shoots,  leaves,  and  blossoms  are 


118 


MAPLE   BUD 


Cabbage  cut  in  Two  Lengthwise 


growing,  a  new  crop  is  started  and  wrapped  in  the  bundles 
which  we  call  hiids  and  bulbs.  In  bulbs,  the  food  for  the  spring 
growth  is  stored  in  the  outer  layers  of  the  bulbs  themselves. 
Buds  have  no  store  of  food,  but  are  fed  by  sap  from  the  roots. 


XXVIII.     TADPOLE 

Material.  —  Tadpoles  kept  in  a  shallow  pan  of  water  with  a  little  sand 
and  mud,  and  a  water  plant,  so  that  they  shall  have  a  home  like  their 
pool.  Look  for  them  about  the  first  of  May  along  the  edges  of  shallow 
pools  and  ponds.  After  three  or  four  days  it  will  be  well  to  return  them 
to  their  pool  of  water  and  get  new  ones,  for  they  are  not  likely  to  thrive 
in  a  room. 

Observation.  —  How  large  is  a  tadpole  ?  "What  is 
its  shape  ?  What  is  its  color  ?  Is  its  under  side 
colored  like  its  back  ?  How  many  eyes  has  it  ? 
Where  are  its  eyes  ?  W^hat  is  the  shape  of  its 
mouth  ?  How  long  is  its  tail  ?  What  is  the  shape 
of  its  tail  ?  Has  the  tadpole  legs  ?  How  does  it 
travel  ?     Does  it  stav  under  water  all  the  time  ? 

Drawing  and  Composition.  —  Write  a  description  of 
a  tadpole,  and  tell  what  it  did  for  ten  minutes  while 
you  watched  it.  Illustrate  your  work  with  a  picture 
of  a  tadpole. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  WORK 

Eggs  of  Frogs  and  Toads.  —  Tadpoles  hatch  from  egsfs  that 
are  laid  mostly  by  frogs  and  toads  in  shallow  water  early  in 
spring.  The  eggs  look  like  drops  of  gelatine  with  a  large 
black  spot  inside  of  each.  Toads  usually  lay  their  eggs  in 
strings,  and  frogs  lay  theirs  in  bunches  that  look  like  handfuls 
of  grayish  jelly.  Collect  a  few  and  watch  them  as  they  hatch. 
You  can  tell  young  toads  from  young  frogs  only  by  the  blacker 

color  of  the  toads. 

U9 


120 


TABrOLE 


The  eggs  may  usually  be  found  some  time  in  April.  The 
earlier  warm  weather  comes,  the  earlier  frogs  and  toads  lay 
their  eggs.  You  may  mistake  fishes'  eggs  for  frogs'  eggs. 
The  eggs  of  fish  are  colorless  or  white  ;  the  eggs  of  toads  and 
frogs  are  brown  or  black. 


Stages  in  the  Life  of  Tadpoles 


Tadpoles.  —  Tadpoles  seem  to  be  the  heads  of  toads  without 
their  bodies.  Look  up  the  word  tadpole  in  the  dictionary,  and 
see  from  what  two  old  words  it  comes. 

A  young  tadpole  breathes  by  gills,  like  a  fish,  but  as  it  grows 


TADPOLE 


121 


older  lungs  begin  to  form.  Why  do  the  larger  tadpoles  come 
to  the  top  of  the  water  once  in  a  while,  and  after  a  moment, 
wiggle  back  again  ?     Why  do  they  make  you  think  of  wigglers  ? 

A  Tadpole's  Changes.  —  Before  school  closes  for  summer 
you  may  lind  tadpoles  with  legs  sprouting  from  their  bodies. 
Which  sprout  first,  the  hind  legs  or  the  fore  legs  ? 

Has  a  full-grown  toad  or  frog  a  tail  ?  A  tadpole's  tail  does 
not  drop  off,  but  its  substance  is  carried  by  the  blood  to  feed 
the  growing  legs. 

Some  kinds  of  frog  tad2:)oles  remain  tadpoles  for  over  a  year, 
and  do  not  change  to  frogs  until  the  next  summer. 

You  may  have  seen  a  footpath  or  road  covered  with  small 
toads  after  a  rain.  Great  numbers  of  toad  tadpoles  are 
hatched  in  every  pool. 
In  June  or  July  they 
become  full-grown  and 
leave  the  water.  They 
lie  in  the  shade  on  hot 
days,  but  after  a  rain 
they  often  swarm  over 
our  paths  and  roads. 

What  Toads  eat.  — 
A  toad  is  a  friend  to 
the  farmer,  for  it  eats 
many  harmful  bugs  and 
worms,    and    does    no 

harm.  Then,  too,  the  toad  eats  mostly  at  night,  when  the  bugs 
are  feasting  and  while  the  birds  are  asleep. 

Watch  a  toad  some  evening.  If  you  are  quiet  and  gentle, 
it  may  dart  out  its  tongue  and  catch  a  fly. 

Frogs  and  Toads  in  Winter.  —  When  cold  weather  comes  a 
frog  goes  down  deep  into  the  mud,  and  a  toad  buries  itself  in 
soft  soil  below  frost.  Both  sleep  through  the  winter,  and  in 
early  spring  come  out  as  lively  as  ever.  You  may  know  when 
they  have  wakened,  for  they  at  once  begin  to  use  their  voices. 


Full-grown  Frog 


122  TADPOLE 

Frog  and  Toad  Voices.  —  Notice  the  different  kinds  of  sounds 
that  frogs  and  toads  make.  Many  of  the  peeping  sounds  that 
come  from  swamps  in  spring  are  made  by  toads.  The  shrillest 
peep  of  all  is  made  by  a  tree  frog.  The  common  green-backed 
frog  makes  a  lower-pitched  peep,  or  a  croak. 

On  an  evening  in  early  spring  listen  to  the  sounds  that  come 
from  a  marsh.  How  many  kinds  of  frog  and  toad  voices  do 
you  hear  ?  On  what  date  did  you  hear  the  first  one  in  spring  ? 
How  late  in  summer  have  you  heard  them  ? 

On  summer  evenings  you  may  often  hear  toads  peeping  and 
tree  toads  trilling  in  orchards  and  meadows. 

Tree  Frogs.  —  Several  kinds  of  frogs  live  in  trees,  but  they 
are  usually  called  tree  toads.  In  the  place  of  toenails  the  ends 
of  their  toes  have  flat  suckers  for  climbing.  The  animals  are 
mottled  gray  and  black,  and  look  so  much  like  a  bunch  of  moss 
that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  find  one  even  though  it  may  be 
plainly  trilling  its  notes  close  by. 

Salamanders. — In  quiet  pools  and  damp  woods  you  may 
sometimes  find  black  or  brown  creatures  about  four  inches  in 
length  that  look  something  like  small  alligators.  These  are 
salamanders,  but  are  often  wrongly  called  lizards.  They  lay 
their  eggs  in  the  water,  and  their  young  look  like  the  tadpoles 
of  frogs,  and  pass  through  the  same  stages  of  growth,  except 
that  the  salamander  tadpoles  do  not  lose  their  tails  when  they 
get  their  legs. 


XXIX.     WATER    STRIDER 

Material.  —  Some  water  striders  in  a  large  dish  of  water,  covered 
with  a  pane  of  glass,  to  prevent  them  from  flying  away.  Catch  tnem 
with  a  net  made  by  sewing  a  bag  of  cheese  cloth  to  a  stout  wire  bent  into 
a  circle,  and  fastened  to  a  pole.  At  the  end  of  the  lesson  return  them 
to  their  home. 

Pins  and  sewing  needles  will  also  be  needed. 

Observation.  —  How  large  is  a  water  strider  ?  What 
is  its  shape  ?  What  is  its  color  ?  Has  it  wings  ? 
What  is  the  shape  of  its  mouth  parts  ?  How  many 
legs  has  a  water  strider  ?     What  is  their  shape  ? 

What  is  the  shape  of  the  part  of  a  water  strider's 
leg  that  touches  the  water  ?  Does  the  insect  get  its 
feet  wet  while  it  is  walking  on  the  water?  How 
does  the  surface  of  the  water  look  where  a  leg  rests 
upon  it  ?  How  much  does  a  water  strider  disturb 
the  water  when  it  moves? 

Carefully  drop  a  small  needle  on  the  surface  of  a 
cup  of  water.  Can  you  make  the  needle  float  ?  Try 
a  pin  also.  How  does  the  surface  of  the  water  next 
to  the  needle  look  ?  Does  the  water  wet  the  needle  ? 
See  if  you  can  make  a  wet  needle  float.  Does  the 
water  strider  float  as  the  needle  does  ? 

Drawing.  —  Draw  a  picture  of  a  water  strider  as  it 
looks  when  it  is  walking  on  the  water. 

123 


124 


WATER   STRIDER 


Composition.  —  Write  a  paragraph  on  each  of  these 
topics :  — 

Description  of  a  water  stricter. 

The  surface  of  the  water  around  a  water  strider's  legs. 

A  needle  floating  on  water. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  WORK 

How  a  Water  Strider  Acts.  —  If  you  see  a  long-legged  insect 
walking  on  the  water  with  only  its  feet  touching  the  surface, 


Water  Strider  and  Pin  Floating 

you  may  know  it  to  be  a  water  strider.     Can  you  catch  it 
easily  ?     How  fast  can  it  travel  ?    What  is  one  usually  doing  ? 


WATER   STRIDER  125 

Drop  a  fly  on  the  water  and  see  what  the  water  strider  does. 
Do  you  see  a  dent  or  dimple  on  the  surface  of  the  water  under 
each  foot  of  a  water  strider?  The  insect  does  not  swim 
through  the  water,  but  walks  on  the  top  of  it. 

On  a  sunshiny  day  you  may  see  a  bright  ring  around  the 
shadow  of  each  foot  of  a  water  strider.    What  makes  the  ring  ? 

Whirligig  Beetles.  —  Wherever  you  see  water  striders  you 
are  likely  to  see  crowds  of  small,  black  beetles,  on  the  surface 
of  the  water,  darting  to  and  fro.  They  swim  on  the  top  of  the 
water  so  fast  that  they  appear  to  be  whirling  round  and  round. 
They  can  dive  and  fly  as  well  as  they  can  swim.  Catch  one,  if 
you  can,  and  look  at  its  paddlelike  feet. 

Flying  Insects  under  Water.  —  Sweep  the  grassy  edge  of  a 
pond  or  pool  with  a  scoop  net.  Among  other  interesting 
things  you  will  be  likely  to  get  winged  insects  that  live  under 
water  most  of  the  time.  One  kind  is  a  brown,  flat  insect,  two 
inches  or  more  in  length,  and  is  called  a  giant  icater  buy. 
These  bugs  often  fly  around  bright  electric  lights  at  night. 

You  may  also  catch  two  other  kinds  of  smaller  flying  bugs. 
One  swims  on  his  back  and  is  called  a  back  swimmer.  Another, 
the  water  boatman,  keeps  one  pair  of  legs  thrust  out  side  wise, 
and  uses  them  as  if  they  were  oars.  When  under  water,  all 
these  bugs  carry,  beneath  their  wings,  a  supply  of  air  for 
breathing.     This  air  under  water  gleams  like  silver. 

Mosquito  Destroyers.  —  Water  striders  and  whirligig  beetles 
live  on  other  insects  which  they  catch  on  the  surface  of  the 
water.  They  are  fond  of  wigglers,  and  catch  great  numbers 
of  the  malarial  kind,  for  these  wigglers  float  with  their  backs 
halfway  out  of  water.  The  back  swimmers  and  water  boatmen 
catch  all  kinds  of  wigglers  under  water.  Few  mosquitoes  can 
grow  in  pools  where  these  four  kinds  of  insects  live. 


XXX.     DUCKWEED 

Material.  —  Duckweed  floating  in  a  dish  of  water.  Give  this  lesson 
while  waiting  to  use  a  subject  wliich,  like  the  lesson  on  maple  buds,  must 
be  given  in  the  course  of  the  few  days  during  which  the  specimens  are  in 
the  proper  stage. 

Observation.  —  How  large  is  a  duckweed  plant? 
Has  it  a  stem?  How  many  leaves  has  it?  How 
large  is  one  of  the  leaves  ?  What  is  its  shape  ? 
What  is  its  color  ?  How  are  the  leaves  joined 
together  ? 

How  many  roots  has  a  duckweed  plant  ?  How 
large  is  a  root  ?  What  is  its  shape  ?  What  is  its 
color  ?  Are  the  roots  single  or  branched  ?  To 
what  part  of  the  j)lant  are  they  fastened  ?  Are  their 
lower  ends  fastened  to  anything  ? 

Drawing  and  Composition.  —  Draw  a  picture  and 
write  a  description  of  a  duckweed  plant. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  WORK 

How  a  Duckweed  Grows.  —  A  duckweed  plant  consists  of 
three  or  four  small  leaves  which  float  on  the  water,  and  a  few 
slender  roots  which  hang  loose  in  the  water.  The  whole  plant 
is  smaller  than  a  fingernail,  but  it  is  often  so  plentiful  as  to 
form  a  green  covering  on  the  water.  Why  do  you  not  find  it 
in  the  middle  of  an  open  pond  ? 

126 


DUCKWEED 


127 


Duckweeds  increase  in  number  by  new  leaves  that  grow 
from  the  edges  of  the  old  ones.  Do  you  find  any  of  the  small 
new  leaves  on  the  plants  that  you  observed  ? 


Duckweed  and  a  Snail 


Leaf  Shapes  of  Water  Plants.  —  Besides  duckweed,  what  other 
plants  have  you  seen  growing  with  their  leaves  afloat  on  the 
top  of  the  water  ?  What  is  the  shape  of  the  leaves  of  pond 
lilies  ?     What  is  the  shape  of  most  floating  leaves  ? 

Do  you  find  any  plants  having  some  of  their  leaves  floating 
on  the  water,  and  other  leaves  growing  under  water  ?  How 
do  these  two  sets  of  leaves  differ  in  shape  ? 

How  stiff  is  the  stem  of  a  pond  lily  ?  Why  does  a  pond 
lily  not  need  a  stiff  stem  ?  What  is  the  stiffness  of  the  stems 
of  most  plants  that  float  on  the  water  or  grow  beneath  it  ?  In 
what  way  might  stiff  stems  be  bad  for  the  plants  ?     How  stiff 


128  DUCKWEED 

are  the  stems  of  most  plants   that  grow  in  swiftly  running 
water  ? 

Pond  Algae.  —  Wherever  you  find  duckweed  growing,  you 
will  also  be  likely  to  see  a  green  scum  floating  on  the  water 
and  covering  sticks  and  stones  with  waving  tufts.  This  is  a 
kind  of  j)ond  alga.  Take  some  in  your  hand,  and  see  of  what 
it  is  made.  Do  you  see  separate  threads  as  fine  as  the  finest 
silk  ?  Examine  some  of  the  threads  with  a  microscope.  Do 
you  see  beautiful  spirals  of  green  running  along  each  thread  ? 

Snails.  —  Along  with  duckweed  you  are  quite  likely  to  find         I 
water  snails  clinging  to  leaves  and  sticks.     You  may  know         i 
them  by  their  spiral  shells.     Some  w411  be  as  small  as  pin- 
heads,  and  you  may  see  others  as  large  as  your  thumb.     They 
eat  green  leaves,  and  especially  algse. 


XXXI.     APPLE   BLOSSOM 

Material.  — Apple  twigs  in  blossom.  Just  before  the  blossoms  appear 
review  the  lesson  on  apple  fruit  spurs. 

Observation.  —  From  a  single  apple  bud  how  many 
blossoms  grow  ?  How  long  a  shoot  grows  from  it  ? 
How  many  leaves  grow  from  it  ?  Which  come  first, 
leaves  or  blossoms  ? 

How  large  is  an  apple  blossom  ?  What  is  its 
color  ?  Has  it  any  odor  ?  How  many  colored  petals 
has  it  ?  What  is  the  shape  of  a  petal  ?  What 
finally  becomes  of  the  petals  ? 

How  many  pinlike  stalks  are  within  the  ring  of 
the  petals  ?  Are  the  stalks  all  alike,  or  do  you  find 
two  kinds  ?  What  is  the  difference  between  the  two 
kinds  of  stalks  ? 

What  is  the  shape  of  the  part  to  which  the  petals 
are  fastened  ?  This  part  is  called  the  calyx.  What 
is  the  color  of  the  calyx  ?  How  many  points  has  the 
upper  edge  of  the  calyx?  What  becomes  of  the 
calyx  after  the  petals  fall  ? 

Drawing.  —  Draw  a  picture  of  an  apple  blossom 
bud  that  has  just  opened.  Draw  a  picture  of  a 
single  blossom,  showing  all  its  parts. 

OVER.     NAT.    STUD. 9  129 


130 


APPLE   BLOSSOM 


Composition.  —  Write  a  description  of  an  apple 
blossom.  In  the  first  paragraj)li  name  everything 
that  grows  from  a  blossom  bud,  in  the  second,  de- 
scribe the  colored  part  of  a  blossom,  in  the  third, 
describe  the  small  stalks  in  the  center  of  the  blossom, 
and  in  the  fourth,  describe  the  calyx. 


SUPPLEMENTARY   WORK 

Parts  of  an  Apple  Blossom.  —  In  au  apple  blossom  you  can 
easily  see  three  distinct  parts. 

First,  there  is  a  ring  of  beautiful  white  or  pink  petals. 
How  long  do  they  remain  on  the  blossom  ?     Do  they  leave  a 

trace    of    themselves 

behind  ? 

Second,  within  the 
ring  of  petals  are  two 
sets  of  small  stalks. 
Those  that  are  tipped 
with  yellow  balls  are 
stamens.  How  many 
stamens  are  there  ? 
How  are  they  ar- 
ranged ?  Touch  a 
stamen.  Does  some 
dust  fall  from  the 
ball?  The  dust  is 
called  pollen. 

At  the  center  of  the  blossom  is  another  set  of  small  stalks, 
each  tipped  with  a  flat  sticky  knob.  These  stalks  are  the 
upper  ends  of  pistils.  How  many  pistils  are  there  ?  Some  of 
the  powder  from  a  stamen  must  fall  on  a  pistil  or  else  the 
apple  and  its  seed  will  not  grow. 

What  becomes  of  the  stamens  and  the  stalks  of  the  pistils 


Apple  Blosso.ms 


APPLE  BLOSSOM 


131 


when  the  petals  fall  ?      Look  for   their   remains   on   a  ripe 
apple. 

Third,  the  petals,  the  stamens,  and  the  stalks  of  the  pistils 
are  borne  on  the  upper  edge  of  a  green,  urn-shaped  calyx. 
The  calyx  becomes  the  real  fruit  of  the  apple  tree,  and  con- 
tains seeds  in  its  center. 

Cut  a  blossom  in  two  lengthwise  with  a  sharp  knife  to  show 
how  its  parts  are  arranged.  To  what  part  of  the  calyx  are  the 
petals  joined?  To  what  part  are  the  stamens  joined?  To 
what  part  are  the  stalks  of  the  pistils  joined  ?  Where  are  the 
beginnings  of  the  seeds  ?  Look  at  the  blossom  of  a  strawberry 
or  blackberry  and  see  if  you  can  find  parts  similar  to  those  on 
an  apple  blossom. 

Bees.  —  Have  you  seen  bees  on  apple  blossoms  ?  How  many 
have  you  seen  on  a  tree  at  once  ?  What  were  they  doing  ? 
When  a  bee  crawls  over  a  blossom,  it  gets  some  of  the  pollen 
on  its  hair,  and  rubs 
it  on  the  next  pistil 
that  it  touches.  If 
it  were  not  for  the 
bees,  we  should  not  be 
likely  to  have  many 
apples.     Why  ? 

AVhat  flowers  be- 
sides apple  blossoms 
have  you  seen  bees 
visit?  Look  and  see 
if  you  think  that  the 
bees  help  their  blossoms  to  form  their  seeds.  What  other 
kinds  of  insects  have  you  seen  visiting  flowers  ? 

Apples.  —  From  an  apple-flower  bud  there  grows  a  fruit  spur 
which  bears  leaves  and  four  or  five  blossoms.  How  long  a 
time  does  it  take  a  fruit  spur  to  reach  its  full  size  ?  How  old 
is  a  fruit  spur  when  it  puts  forth  a  side  shoot  ? 

Only   one    apple    in    a    cluster    usually    grows ;    the    rest 


Apples  cut  to  show  the  Cores 


182  APPLE   BLOSSOM  , 

drop  off,  leaving  scars  on  the  wood  to  show  where  they 
were. 

The  next  time  you  eat  an  apple  see  if  you  can  find  the  re- 
mains of  the  stamens  and  pistils,  and  of  the  starry  fringe  of 
the  calyx.  After  you  have  eaten  all  the  pulp  compare  the  core 
with  a  bean  pod. 

Look  at  the  red  seed  cases  on  a  rosebush.  How  do  they 
resemble  apples? 

Codlin  Moth.  —  Most  young  apples  that  start  to  grow  fall  off 
because  there  is  not  room  for  all ;  but  those  that  do  grow  meet 
with  many  enemies.  The  common  worm  that  you  find  in 
wormy  apples  is  a  reddish  caterpillar.  This  is  a  young  codlin 
moth.  The  full-grown  insect  is  a  small  gray  moth.  It  lays 
its  eggs  in  the  top  of  an  apple  just  as  the  blossoms  are  falling. 
The  caterpillar  eats  its  way  into  the  apple,  and  about  the 
middle  of  summer  comes  out,  and  makes  a  cocoon  under  the 
loose  bark  on  a  large  branch.  The  best  way  to  protect  apples 
from  this  caterpillar  is  to  spray  the  trees  with  poison  just 
after  the  blossoms  fall. 


XXXII.     OAK   APPLE 

Material.  —  Oak  leaf  galls  of  the  kind  that  are  commonly  called  oak 
apples.  Look  for  them  in  June  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  on  small 
red  oaks  or  black  oaks.  Last  year's  dried  galls  that  may  be  found  among 
the  fallen  leaves  may  also  be  used. 

Observation.  —  How  large  is  an  oak  apple  ?  What 
is  its  color?  What  is  its  shape  ?  Is  it  heavy  or  light  ? 
What  markings  are  on  its  surface  ?  Are  there  any 
holes  in  it  ? 

How  thick  is  its  outer  shell  ?  What  do  you  find 
inside  of  the  shell?  What  is  at  the  center  of  the 
shell  ?  What  do  you  find  inside  of  the  inner  kernel  ? 
Do  you  find  signs  of  an  insect  anywhere  in  the  gall  ? 

Drawing  and  Composition.  —  Write  a  description  of 
an  oak  apple.  Illustrate  your  work  with  a  picture 
of  the  outside  of  a  gall,  and  another  picture  of  the 
inside  of  one  that  is  cut  in  two  through  its  center. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  WORK 

GaUflies.  —  About  the  time  that  your  summer  vacatiou  be- 
gins oak  apples  will  tui'n  brown  and  dry.  Collect  some  and 
keep  them  in  a  jar  covered  with  muslin.  In  a  short  time  a 
reddish  fly  may  be  expected  from  each  gall. 

In  spring  the  full-grown  flies  lay  eggs  in  the  opening  leaves. 
When  an  Qgg  hatches,  the  leaf  forms  a  gall  around  the  young 
grub.     Does  a  gall  harm  a  leaf  that  it  is  on  ?     Do  you  ever 

133 


134 


OAK  APPLE 


find  a  gall  on  the  upper  side  of  a  leaf  ?  On  what  kind  of  oak 
have  you  seen  the  greatest  number  of  galls  ?  Do  you  find  any 
on  white  oaks  ? 

In  June  you  have  to  look  closely  to  find  a  gall,  although  it 
is  fully  grown.  Why  is  this  ?  In  July  you  can  easily  find 
them.     Why  can  you  see  them  easily  in  July  ? 


Oak  Apples 


While  you  looked  for  green  galls  did  you  find  any  last  year's 
galls  on  the  ground  ?  Did  you  find  anything  inside  of  any  of 
the  old  ones  ?  How  does  the  shell  of  a  green  oak  apple  taste  ? 
How  does  its  inner  spongy  part  taste  ? 

Enemies  of  Gallflies.  —  Often,  instead  of  a  single  red  fly, 
you  will  get  a  number  of  small  black  flies  from  a  gall.  This 
is  because  another  kind  of  fly  often  lays  its  eggs  beside  the 
gallfly's  grub.    When  they  hatch,  the  new  worms  eat  the  right- 


OAK  APPLE  135 

ful  owner  of  the  gall  and  live  in  its  house.  If  it  were  not  for 
its  enemies,  galls  might  multiply  and  cover  every  oak  leaf  in 
a  forest. 

Other  Kinds  of  Oak  Galls.  —  On  scrub  oak  and  white  oak 
twigs  you  may  often  see  white  spongy  masses  that  are  called 
vinegar  balls,  and  are  sometimes  eaten  for  their  sour  taste. 
They  are  made  up  of  tufts  of  fibers  that  grow  from  ha-rd  ker- 
nels. In  each  kernel  there  lives  a  young  insect.  Keep  some 
of  the  vinegar  balls  in  a  jar  to  see  the  small  black  flies  that 
come  from  them. 

You  may  often  find  on  oaks  hard  red  galls,  and  also  soft 
red  galls  that  look  like  drops  of  gum.  Look  for  grubs  inside 
of  them.     What  other  kinds  of  oak  galls  do  you  find  ? 

The  galls  on  a  kind  of  oak  in  Asia  Minor  are  the  gallnuts 
that  are  used  in  making  black  dyes  and  ink. 

Swamp  Apples.  —  On  the  twigs  of  swamp  honeysuckles  you 
may  often  see  greenish  white  lumps  like  small  apples.  They 
look  like  galls,  but  are  really  a  growth  of  something  that  is 
like  a  mold. 


XXXIII.     CLOTHES   MOTH 

Material.  —  The  larvas  of  clothes  moths  in  their  cases,  and  some 
moth-eaten  cloth.  The  moths  may  be  found  among  old  woolen  clothes 
that  have  been  lying  undisturbed  in  a  garret  or  barn. 

Observation.  —  How  large  is  a  clothes  moth  ? 
What  is  its  color  ?  What  was  the  color  of  the  cloth 
on  which  it  was  found  ? 

What  you  see  at  the  first  look  is  only  the  case  in 
which  the  clothes  moth  lives.  Where  is  the  opening 
to  the  inside  of  the  case?  Cut  the  case  open  care- 
fully. How  large  is  the  caterpillar  that  you  find? 
What  is  the  color  of  the  caterpillar  ? 

Drawing  and  Composition.  —  Draw  the  picture  of 
a  clothes  moth  in  its  natural  size.  Write  a  descrip- 
tion of  a  clothes-moth's  case  and  of  the  caterpillar 
inside  it. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  WORK 

Full-grown  Moths.  —  Keep  some  moths  in  a  covered  jar  with 
pieces  of  woolen  cloth  for  food.  AVatch  the  caterpillars  as  they 
come  halfway  out  of  their  cases  to  eat.  About  June  they  will 
turn  into  small  flying  moths.  These  full-grown  moths  have 
narrow  brown  wings  that  stretch  about  three  quarters  of  an 
inch  across,  and  are  bordered  behind  with  fringes  of  fine  hair. 
These  flying  insects  lay  eggs  which  hatch  out  the  clothes- 
eating  caterpillars. 

136 


CLOTHES  MOTH  137 

The  Moth's  Case.  —  As  soon  as  it  is  hatched  the  naked  cater- 
pillar makes  a  case  for  itself  out  of  shreds  of  cloth  fastened 
together  with  its  own  silk.  As  it  grows  it  puts  new  pieces 
down  the  whole  length  and  on  the  ends  of  its  case. 

Change  the  clothes  moths  in  the  jar  to  cloth  of  another 
color,  so  that  you  can  see  the  patches  as  the  moths  add  them 
to  their  old  cases.  Does  a  moth  add  new  pieces  to  both  ends 
of  its  case  ? 


Life  History  of  a  Clothes  Moth 

Carpet  Beetle.  —  Look  under  the  edges  of  carpets  and  in 
boxes  of  old  clothes  for  yellow  grubs  about  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  in  length,  thinly  covered  with  stiff  black  hairs.  These 
are  young  carpet  beetles  or  buffalo  moths.  They  are  becoming 
common,  and  are  often  doing  more  harm  than  clothes  moths. 
Can  you  easily  catch  one,  or  hold  it  between  your  fingers  after 
it  is  caught  ? 

You  may  sometimes  find  the  empty  skins  of  carpet  beetles, 
and  perhaps  you  may  see  a  winged  insect  inside  a  skin,  for  the 
grubs  turn  into  hard-winged  beetles  and  fly  away.     In  color 


138  .        CLOTHES  MOTH 

these  full-grown  beetles  are  a  mixture  of  black,  white,  and  red, 
and  look  a  great  deal  like  small  lady  bugs.  They  live  on 
mullein  and  other  flowers,  but  in  the  spring  they  come  into 
our  houses  to  lay  their  eggs.  Keep  some  of  the  grubs  until 
they  turn  into  winged  beetles,  so  that  you  may  know  the  full- 
grown  insects  when  you  see  them. 

Fish  Moths.  —  In  chests  and  boxes  of  clothes  you  may  some- 
times come  upon  shiny  white  insects  that  quickly  run  for 
cover.  Their  bodies  are  large  in  front  and  tapering  behind, 
and  are  covered  with  silvery  scales  that  may  easily  be  rubbed 
off.  They  are  called  Jisli  moths  or  silver  Jisli.  These  insects 
often  damage  linen  and  cotton  goods,  especially  those  that 
have  been  starched. 

Protection  against  Clothes-eating  Insects.  —  Almost  the  only 
way  to  keep  clothes  free  from  moths  is  to  clean  them  and  pack 
them  in  tightly  closed  bags,  or  in  tight  boxes  with  paper 
pasted  over  all  the  cracks.  Only  the  young  insects  do  the 
damage,  and  if  the  old  ones  can  not  get  in  to  lay  eggs,  the 
clothes  are  safe,  for  the  young  do  not  travel  far. 


INDEX 


Alga,  128. 
Apple  — 

blossom,  129. 

branch,  94,  99. 

bud,  95,  100. 

fruit,  131. 

fruit  scar,  99. 

fruit  spur,  98. 

leaf,  97. 

Oak,  133. 

Swamp,  135. 
Aster,  47. 

Back  swimmer,  125. 
Bark,  65. 
Bean,  112. 
Bee,  46,  131. 
Birch  tree,  47. 
Bird  seeds,  46. 
Bitter-weed,  46. 
Blood,  104. 
Blowfly,  16. 
Bluebottle  fly,  16. 
Borers,  45,  68. 
Bud  — 

Apple,  95,  100,  131. 

Cabbage,  117. 

Maple,  115. 

Pine,  86. 


Bulb,  106,  117. 
Burdock,  50. 
Butterfly,  26. 

Monarch,  28. 

Mourning  cloak,  71. 

Swallowtail,  28. 

Violet-tip,  28. 

Cabbage,  117. 
Caddis  worm,  76. 
Calyx,  129,  131. 
Carbon,  66. 
Carpet  beetle,  137. 
Caterpillar,  23. 

Apple,  132. 

Cabbage,  28. 

Clothes  moth,  136. 

Golden-rod  gall,  48. 

Hop-vine,  28. 

Milkw^eed,  28. 

Tomato,  29. 

Web  worm,  25,  61,  70. 

Woolly  bear,  72. 
Cat-tail,  39. 
Charcoal,  66. 
Chickadee,  81. 
Chipping  sparrow,  62. 
Climbing  vines,  114. 
Cocoon,  26,  54,  69. 
139 


140 


INDEX 


Corn,  114. 
Cotton,  39. 
Cuckoo,  61. 

Daddy  longlegs,  43. 
Dandelion,  35,  84. 
Digging  spider,  43. 
Digging  wasp,  59. 
Duckweed,  126. 

Earthstar,  33. 
Earthworm,  102. 
Evergreens,  90. 

Floret,  36,  44,  51. 
Ely,  13. 

Blow,  16. 

House,  14. 

Gall,  48,  49,  133. 

Golden-rod,  45. 

Ichneumon,  29. 

Stable,  16. 
Frog,  119. 
Erost,  83. 
Euzz-bills,  21. 

Gall  — 

Blackberry,  49. 

Golden-rod,  48. 

Oak,  133. 

Spiny  rose,  49. 

Willow,  49. 
Gallnut,  135. 
Giant  water  bug,  125. 
Golden-rod,  44. 
Grain  marks,  67. 


Harvestman,  43. 
Hornet,  53. 
Hound's-tongue,  52. 
House  fly,  13. 
Hyacinth,  107. 

Ice,  73. 

Ichneumon  fly,  29. 
Icicle,  75. 


Junco,  81. 


Larva,  15,  54. 

Lily,  107. 

Lizard,  122. 

Locust  tree,  37,  45,  68. 

Locust-tree  borer,  45. 

Maggot,  15. 
Malaria,  22. 
Maple  — 

bud,  115. 

seed,  108. 
Milkweed,  28,  39. 
Mosquito,  17,  125. 
Moth,  26. 

Buffalo,  137. 

Cecropia,  70. 

Clothes,  136. 

Codlin,  132. 

Eish,  138. 

Luna,  70. 

Polyphemus,  70. 

Promethea,  70. 

Tussock,  71. 
Mushroom,  31. 


INDEX 


141 


National  flower,  46. 
Nest  — 

Bird,  60. 

Mud  wasp,  56. 

Paper  wasp,  53. 

Spider,  72.      ' 

Web  worm,  25,  61. 

Oak  apple,  133. 
Onion,  105,  114. 
Oriole,  61. 

Pea,  113. 
Peach,  101. 
Peanut,  114. 
Petal,  130. 
Pine  — 

cone,  91. 

flowers,  89,  92. 

leaf  chain,  90. 

leaves,  88. 

seeds,  92. 

tree,  85. 
Pistil,  130. 
Pitchfork,  52. 
Pollen,  92,  130. 
Potato,  107. 
Puffball,  33. 

Pupa,  15,  19,  25,  49,  54,  57, 
71. 

Ragweed,  46. 
Robin,  62,  103. 

Salamander,  122. 
Sap,  66. 


Seedling  — 

Maple,  109. 

Pine,  93. 
Silk,  26. 
Silkworm,  72. 
Silver  fish,  138. 
Sleeping  flowers,  37. 
Snail,  128. 
Snow,  78. 

Tracks  in,  80. 
Snowbird,  81. 
Spider,  57,  72. 

web,  40. 
Spores,  33. 
Stamen,  130. 
Stick-tight,  52. 
Sunflower,  47. 
Swamp  apple,  135. 

Tadpole,  119. 
Toad,  119. 
Toadstool,  32. 
Tomato  worm,  29. 
Tracks  in  snow,  80. 
Tree  — 

Apple,  94. 

growth,  65. 

Maple,  115. 

Pine,  85. 

trunk,  64. 
Turnip,  107. 

Vinegar  ball,  135. 
Virfeo,  62. 

Wasp,  53,  56. 


142 


INDEX 


Water  boatman,  125. 
Water  strider,  123. 
Web  worm,  25,  61,  70. 
Weed  seed,  52. 
Whirligig  beetle,  125. 
Wiggler,  17. 


Winter  leaves,  84. 
Wood,  67. 
Wounds  of  tree,  67. 

Yellow  bird,  62. 
Yellow  jacket,  55, 


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